Philosophy Of Thought And Logic

Philosophy of Thought and Logic

Welcome to Philosophy of Thought and Logic

Understanding the world through experience and reason.

Everyone has to think in order to function in the world, and this course will equip you with the tools to reason effectively in your pursuit of reliable beliefs and useful knowledge. Whether you are a budding philosopher searching for ultimate truths, a science student grappling with the nature of scientific proof, a new parent weighing conflicting childrearing advice, or a concerned citizen making up your mind about today's issues, the lessons you learn in this course will help you cut through deception and faulty reasoning to get closer to the essence of a matter.

This is equally a course in argument and in reasoning. While you will learn how to reason, you will also learn how to persuade others. And it teaches how to judge and answer the arguments of others and how they will judge yours. This is the very center of a well-educated mind.

Dr. Michael Thompson

Thinking

The Thinking Process

Brandy Bussen, Lindsay Frahm, and Jon Richards

Thinking critically is a way of exploring the thinking process to clarify our understanding and make more intelligent decisions. Thinking, itself, is the process we use every day to make sense of our life and the world around us. We think critically because of our natural human ability to reflect and think back on what we do, think, or feel. Our goal from thinking is to solve problems, make decisions and achieve goals.

Creative thinking is using our thinking process to develop ideas that are unique, useful, and worthy of further elaboration. Some common questions for people who think creatively are: what is the purpose of life, who am I, who do I want to be. We have to have the capacity to create a fulfilling life, but we must develop and make full use of our thinking potential. We must have goals. Every person has something that they are working towards or looking forward to something. We have to identify appropriate goals; both long term and short term goals. Identify and reaching goals involves making informed intelligent decisions. Creative thinking teaches that there are many different ways of experiencing and communicating information. We use visual arts and humanities to do this. We analyze a painting’s message, style, or we can try to describe a film.

Making decisions is an everyday occurrence, for everyone. There are several steps in decision making: define the decision clearly, consider all possible choices, gather all relevant information and evaluate pros and cons of each possibility, select the choice that seems to best meet the needs of the situation, and implement a plan of action and then monitor the results, making the necessary adjustments. Some people make decisions on a dime. They don’t think things through and then they don’t realize what they are doing. Having a plan is a fairly good idea and it keeps your goals in order.

Most people spend their entire lives trying to discover who they are. You have to learn what your interests and talents are. Who you are is a combination of interests, abilities, and values. You need to decide what you enjoy. All people live creatively, in some way. Being creative doesn’t mean being artistic. Creativity can be cooking, creating a wardrobe, raising children, playing sports, cutting hair, dancing, and playing music. To understand the creative process, we must go beyond the established way of thinking. We have to go into the unknown and the innovative. You have to absorb yourself in a task. This means emerging yourself in work after a great deal of work, study, and practice. There must be time for ideas to incubate. You have to stop working on the task; which allows time for your mind to process, organize, and make new ideas and solutions. Seizing on ideas when they emerge and follow through is another part of understanding the creative process. You must have confidence. Eliminating the voice of criticism is also important. You have to become aware of the voice of criticism. You have to figure out why and how they develop. The next step is to restate the judgment in a more accurate or constructive way. You have to get rid of the voice of criticism. Instead you need to create positive voices and visualizations. We should also use other people for independent confirmation. If you share your ideas with friends, they will let you know what they honestly think.

To think creatively, we should establish a creative environment and avoid myths. Such as, creative people are geniuses. You don’t have to be a chosen one to be a creative person. We have to think of ways to work that encourage personal commitment and expressiveness. Everyone is creative in their own way.

We must be mindful instead of mindless. Being mindful is making use of our responsive, perceptive faculties, which allows us to avoid rigid, reflexive behavior in favor of more improvistional and intuitive responses to life. Thinking is a purposeful, organized cognitive process that we use to understand the world and make informed decisions. To be human is to think. We are the only living being that is gifted with a cognitive thought process. If we put our minds to it, we can learn anything we want.

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th ed. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.
Teaching Skills

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The Thinking Process

Brandy Bussen, Lindsay Frahm, and Jon Richards

Thinking can be developed and improved by becoming aware of the thinking process, carefully examining the thinking process, and practicing the thinking process. Thinking is defined as the purposeful, organized cognitive process that we use to understand the world and make informed decisions. Thinking critically is defined as carefully exploring the thinking process to clarify our understanding and make more intelligent decisions. Thinking creatively is defined as using our thinking process to develop ideas that are unique, useful, and worthy of further elaboration.

Achieving the goal of becoming an educated thinker involved two core processes that are the mainsprings of our thoughts and actions: Thinking critically and thinking creatively. These two core dimensions of your mind, the abilities to think critically and to think creatively, are the tools you have to fashion a life that is meaningful, successful, and fulfilling. We are able to think critically because of our natural human ability to reflect, to think back on what we are thinking, doing, or feeling. By carefully thinking back on our thinking, we are able to figure out the way that our thinking operates and thus learn to do it more effectively. The process of thinking critically involves thinking for ourselves by carefully examining the way we make sense of the world. Taking this approach to living is one of the most satisfying aspects of being a mature human being.

Every day you encounter a series of choices, forks in your life path that have the cumulative effect of defining you as a person. In thinking about these choices, you may discover that there are habitual patterns in your life that rarely change. If you find that your life is composed of a collection of similar activities and routines, don’t despair; this is typical, not unusual. However, it may be an indication that you are not living your life in the most thoughtful fashion possible, that your choices have become automatic, and that your experiences are fixed in certain “ruts.” If this is the case, is may be time to reflect on your life, reevaluate the choices you are making, and consider living your life in a more reflective and creative fashion.

Our world has become a complex and challenging place in which to live. The accelerated pace t which many people live often makes them feel as though they are rushing from deadline to deadline, skating on the surface of life instead of exploring its deeper meanings. What is the purpose of life? Who are you, and who do you want to become? These are essential questions that form the core of life, and yet the velocity of our live discourages us from even posing these questions, much less trying to answer them.
Goals play extremely important functions in your life by organizing your thinking and giving your life order and direction. Goals suggest courses of action and influence your decisions. By performing these functions, goals contribute meaning to your life.

The three core areas that are central to being an accomplished thinker and living a successful, fulfilling life are establishing and achieving your goals, becoming an intelligent and effective decision-maker, and becoming a confident and productive creative thinker.
Thinking effectively plays a crucial role in helping you to achieve your goals by enabling you to perform two distinct, interrelated activities: indentifying the appropriate goals and devising effective plans and strategies to achieve your goals.

Creative thinking teaches us that there are many different ways of experiencing and communicating information. When you use any of the creative or critical approaches to problem solving, try to incorporate visual as well as verbal descriptions and information.
Identifying and reaching the goals in our lives involves making informed, intelligent decisions. Many of the decisions we make turn out poorly, undermining our efforts to achieve the things we most want in life. Many of our poor decisions involve relatively minor issues.

Although these decisions may result in unpleasant consequences, the discomfort is neither life-threatening nor long lasting. However, there are many more significant decisions in our lives in which poor choices can result in considerably more damaging and far-reaching consequences.

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th ed. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.
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Socrates, Goals, and Thinking

Ryan Edmundson, Tyler Anderson, and Jared Hall

Thinking is what we use on a daily basis to make sense of what we see and do. Successful thinking will allow people to have fulfillment and purpose in life by helping them reach their goals and make intelligent decisions. Thinking involves a process which includes thinking critically and thinking creatively. Thinking critically is defined as “Carefully exploring the thinking process to clarify our understandings and make more intelligent decisions.” However, thinking creatively is defined as “ Using our thinking process to develop ideas that are unique, useful, and worthy of further elaboration.”

In gaining these thinking abilities, it will give the partaker a life full of meaning, success, and fulfillment. These principals were first introduced by Socrates when he taught about living a meaningful life through enlightened choices. Socrates was a Greek philosopher that taught life lessons to the Western culture. Socrates once challenged his home city of Athens to “live an examined life” and “take care of their souls.”

On a daily basis people tend to take daily tasks and make a set sequence of events in their day. The majority of people tend to take this and become upset, but this is normal for most people. The bad thing about having a routine is, we make decisions automatically rather than thinking about them. People who live in these ruts should revaluate their lives and make some changes to make their lives more reflective and creative.

In today’s society people are in a hurry. Many people are so concerned with deadlines that they only scratch the surface of their lives. In order for a life to be fulfilled people must take time and explore their lives and make definite choices in which direction they want their lives to head in order to experience life to its fullest. Trying to change and gain meaning and fulfillment in daily life is not an easy task because the world in which we live is full of people who are set in their routines and don’t think, all of their decisions are made automatically.

In the world people are surrounded by those who are full of foolish. Socrates warned the people of his time that “The unexamined life is not worth living.” Socrates told the people of Athens, “You, my friend, a citizen of the great and mighty and wise city of Athens, are you not ashamed of heaping up the greatest amount of money and honour and reputation, and caring so little about wisdom and truth and the greatest improvement of the soul, which you never regard or heed at all?” People can richly enlighten their life, but must first reach your full thinking potential. When their full thinking potential is reached people can explore their own lives and meet the challenges of the world.

A necessity along the journey of having an accomplished life is to make goals. There are two different kinds of goals. There are short-term goals and long-term goals. Short term goals are small achievements that are stepping stones along the path to reaching long-term goals. The long-term goals are milestones in a person’s life in which they wish to accomplish. Goals take much critical thinking and creative thinking. Before a person can set goals a person must determine what they find to be meaningful.

The methods for determining short term goals are to identify the goal and to devise an effective plan to achieve these goals. In order to achieve long-term goals the process is much the same except the process is more challenging. Some examples of short-term goals are planning for the day, studying for an upcoming test, and deciding meals in advance. Some examples of long-term goals are planning for marriages, planning on having kids, and saving for your kids’ college fund. The process for carrying out the first step of setting goals are identify the goals, rank the goals, and select the important goals to focus on. The second step includes listing the goals in order of their importance, estimate the time each goal will take, and plan steps on the way to achieving the goals.

Socrates lived between 469 and 399 B.C.E. and made some of the best philosophy. He had an unstoppable commitment to the truth. Socrates put much thought into building his legacy. Socrates is thought of as one of the greatest philosophers of all time, but the majority of his work was done by just critically thinking. His intelligence was not extraordinarily intelligent, but made the majority of his decisions by critically and creatively thinking. This is the way most decisions must be made. If a person makes decisions by critically and creatively thinking, the truth and best fitting decision will be made.

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th ed. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2007.

Kemerling, Garth. "Socrates." Aug. 2006. Brittanica. 10 Feb. 2009

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Thinking to Achieve Your Goals

Cory Little and Keith Carey

Thinking is the most basic of instincts. We use it in every waking moment of the day, whether you realize or not. Thinking at a higher level, or thinking critically, is a tool that everyone must possess in order to be successful in the world today, especially in the work force. Thinking can be developed and improved by: becoming aware of the thinking process, carefully examining the thinking process, and practicing the thinking process.

Becoming an educated thinker involves two processes that are the basis of our thoughts and actions: thinking critically and thinking creatively. Thinking critically involves thinking for ourselves by carefully examining the world around us. We are able to think critically because of our innate ability to reflect. By reflecting on our thinking process as well as prior and future decisions we can expand our minds and help to think in a more clear and analytical way.

We produce ideas worth examining by thinking creatively. Thinking creatively is using our thinking process to develop ideas that are unique, useful, and worthy of further elaboration. If you are able to think creatively, as well as think critically you have all the tools to make a meaningful and successful life.

Developing a set of attainable goals is an important part of everyone’s life. Setting goals is a good way to give your life order, as well as giving you something to achieve for. Goals can be as short-term as studying for a future test, or as long-term as landing the job of your dreams.

Although short-term goals sometimes seem irrelevant and easily manageable, achieving short-term goals is an easy way to improve your life. If you wake up every morning and give yourself a set of goals to reach for that day, you are giving yourself motivation to improve your life. Sometimes something as little as, “wake up and eat breakfast before class” can end up improving your living conditions dramatically. Because short-term goals can easily pile up, ranking the goals in order of importance can help you achieve the more significant goals before moving on to more minute ones. It also helps to think about how long each goal will take and how many steps are needed to reach each goal.

While reaching short-term goals tends to be easy, reaching long-term goals is much more complex and challenging. When it comes to long-term goals it is very important to identify goals that reflect your own thinking and interests. You need to understand your talents as well as the things that bring you satisfaction. If you set a goal that is unattainable or unfitting of you, you will certainly not achieve it, and will end up letting yourself down.

Motivation is a key aspect in achieving both short-term and long-term goals. Studies have shown that high-achieving people are able to envision a detailed picture of their future in which they have attained all of their goals. They are also able to construct a plan to meet these goals as well as strategies to overcome obstacles. Research has also shown that low achievers tend to focus on the present and the past, rather than the future. Instead of having a clear concept of their future they tend to set goals such as, “I want to be happy.” While this is certainly a good goal to have, there is no definitive way to become happy. There is really no way to devise a strategy to reach this, and a person with this sort of goal tends to just focus on the present to try and achieve their happiness. For example, if you’re goal is to be happy you may end up choosing to go party, instead of studying for a big exam.

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th ed. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.

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Thinking Critically

Thinking Critically

Brandy Bussen, Lindsay Frahm, Jon Richards

Thinking critically means carefully exploring the thinking process to clarify our understanding and making more intelligent decisions. A critical thinker is someone who has developed a knowledgeable understanding of our complex world, a thoughtful perspective on important ideas and timely issues, the capacity for penetrating insight and intelligent judgment, and sophisticated thinking and language abilities. Simply put, critical thinking is using all the information at your disposal to make sense of the world around you.

Critical thinking encompasses seven different things: thinking actively, carefully exploring situations with questions, thinking independently, viewing situations from different perspectives with reasons and evidence, discussing ideas in an organized way, and analyzing issues. Being a critical thinker enables you to become an expert learner, view the world clearly, and make productive choices as you shape your life.

The founder of critical thinking was the Greek philosopher Socrates, whose depth and clarity of thinking is immortalized in the Dialogues by Plato. Socrates was a teacher in the city of Athens who taught his students how to analyze important issues through dialectical questioning, a method that soon became known as the Socratic Method.

Thinking critically is carefully exploring the thinking process to clarify our understanding and make more intelligent decisions. To become a critical thinker you must think actively, carefully explore situations with questions, think independently, view situations from different perspectives, support diverse perspectives with reasons and evidence, discuss ideas in an organized way, and analyze issues.

A critical thinker is someone who has developed a knowledgeable understanding of our complex world, a thoughtful perspective on important ideas and timely issues, the capacity for penetrating insight and intelligent judgment, and sophisticated thinking and language abilities. The word critical comes from the Greek word for “critic” (Kritikos), which means “to question, to make sense of, to be able to analyze.” To qualify as an expert critical thinker one must have a lively, energetic mind. They should also be open-minded, knowledgeable, mentally active, curious, independent thinkers, skilled discussants, insightful, self-aware, creative, and passionate.

When you think critically, you are actively using your intelligence, knowledge, and abilities to deal effectively with life’s situations. When you think actively, you are:

• Getting involved in potentially useful projects and activities instead of remaining disengaged.
• Taking initiative in making decisions on your own instead of waiting passively to be told what to think or do.
• Following through on your commitments instead of giving up when you encounter difficulties.
• Taking responsibility for the consequences of your decisions rather than unjustifiable blaming other or events “beyond your control.”

You are engaged in the process of achieving goals, making decisions, and solving problems. Thinking critically requires that you think actively, not react passively, to deal effectively with life’s situations. Active thinking is one of the keys to effective learning. Each of us has our own knowledge framework that we use to make sense of the world.

Questions can be classified in terms of the ways that people organize and interpret information. Benjamin Bloom first suggested that there are 6 categories of questions.
1. Questions of facts.
a. Who, what, when, where, how
2. Questions of interpretation
a. Chronological relationships
b. Process relationships
c. Comparison/contrast relationships
d. Causal relationships
3. Questions of analysis
a. Attempt to classify various elements, outline component structures, articulate various possibilities, and clarify the reasoning being presented.
4. Questions of synthesis
a. Combine ideas to form a new whole or come to a conclusion, making inferences about future events, creating solutions, and designing plans of action
5. Questions of evaluation
a. Help make informed judgements and decisions by determining the relative value, truth, or reliability of things.
b. By identifying the criteria or standards we are using and then determining to what extent the things in common meet those standards.
6. Questions of application
a. Take the knowledge or concepts we have gained in one situation and apply them to other situations.

Becoming an expert questioner is an ongoing process.

As we grow up, we learn how to think, feel, and behave in various situations. In addition to our parents, our “teachers” include our brothers and sisters, friends, religious leaders, school-teachers, books, television, and the internet. Most of what we learn we absorb without even being aware of the process.

When having a discussion with someone you need to listen carefully, support your views with reasons and evidence, respond to the points being made, ask questions, and increase your own understanding.

References

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th ed. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.
Critical Thinking

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Thinking Critically

By: Ryan Edmundson, Tyler Anderson, Jared Hall

Thinking is an extraordinary process we use every thinking moment. Critical thinking allows us to solve problems we are faced with on a daily basis. Successful thinking lets us help make sense of what we se daily in the world. Each decision that is made is done with some level of critical thinking. This ranges from rocket science to deciding what clothes to wear in the morning. A critical thinker is someone who has developed a knowledgeable understanding of our complex world. Thinking is the way you make sense of the world.

Expert critical thinkers should be; open-minded, knowledgeable, mentally active, curious, independent thinkers, killed discussants, insightful, self-aware, creative, and passionate. To become a critical thinker it is as simple as analyzing the issues. Ask yourself what are the issues? What is the evidence, what are the arguments? What is the verdict? Asking yourself these questions can guide you more easily to determine a correct solution of answer. Also, you can discuss the ideas in an organized way. First listen carefully. Listening carefully can give you a minute detail that others may not see, or catch.

Next support views with reasons and evidence. With the support and evidence behind your views, this strengthens you thoughts and your answers, and helps you make it less likely you will be wrong. Then respond to the points being made. Responses may give someone else or yourself another side of the problem that you have not looked at, or let a loan even thought of. “Critical thinking is purposeful and reflective judgment about what to believe or do in response to observations, experience, verbal or written expressions, or arguments. Critical thinking might involve determining the meaning and significance of what is observed or expressed, or, concerning a given inference or argument, determining whether there is adequate justification to accept the conclusion as true. Hence, Fisher & Scriven define critical thinking as "Skilled, active, interpretation and evaluation of observations, communications, information, and argumentation."

Critical thinking gives due consideration to the evidence, the context of judgment, the relevant criteria for making the judgment well, the applicable methods or techniques for forming the judgment, and the applicable theoretical constructs for understanding the nature of the problem and the question at hand. Critical thinking employs not only logic but broad intellectual criteria such as clarity, credibility, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, significance and fairness. In contemporary usage "critical" has the connotation of expressing disapproval, which is not always true of critical thinking. A critical evaluation of an argument, for example, might conclude that it is good.” Wikipedia Critical Thinking. Critical thinkers: distinguish between fact and opinion; ask questions; make detailed observations; uncover assumptions and define their terms; and make assertions based on sound logic and solid evidence.

Ellis, D., Becoming a Master Student, 1997

Critical thinking is best understood as the ability of thinkers to take charge of their own thinking. This requires that they develop sound criteria and standards for analyzing and assessing their own thinking and routinely use those criteria and standards to improve its quality.

Elder , L. and Paul, R., "Critical thinking: why we must transform our teaching." Journal of Developmental Education, Fall 1994.

Wikipedia Critical Thinking
Strategies for Success Critical Thinking

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Critical Thinking

Cory Little and Keith Carey

Thinking critically means carefully exploring the thinking process to clarify our understanding and making more intelligent decisions. A critical thinker is someone who has developed a knowledgeable understanding of our complex world, a thoughtful perspective on important ideas and timely issues, the capacity for penetrating insight and intelligent judgment, and sophisticated thinking and language abilities. Simply put, critical thinking is using all the information at your disposal to make sense of the world around you.

Critical thinking encompasses seven different things: thinking actively, carefully exploring situations with questions, thinking independently, viewing situations from different perspectives with reasons and evidence, discussing ideas in an organized way, and analyzing issues. Being a critical thinker enables you to become an expert learner, view the world clearly, and make productive choices as you shape your life. A critical thinker is usually open-minded, knowledgeable, mentally active, curious, independent thinkers, skilled discussants, insightful, self-aware, creative, and passionate.

The founder of critical thinking was the Greek philosopher Socrates, whose depth and clarity of thinking is immortalized in the Dialogues by Plato. Socrates was a teacher in the city of Athens who taught his students how to analyze important issues through dialectical questioning, a method that soon became known as the Socratic Method.

Critical thinking gives consideration to the evidence, the context of judgment, the relevant criteria for making the judgment, the techniques for forming the judgment, and the applicable constructs for understanding the nature of the problem.

Critical thinking is an important element of most all professional fields and is being stressed in colleges and universities. Critical thinking involves the careful acquisition and interpretation of information to reach a reasonable conclusion. It also helps on to analyze, evaluate and explain our thinking, therefore reducing the odds of making the wrong decision. Bias, prejudice, propaganda, self-deception, distortion, and misinformation are all identified and removed from decision making when using critical thinking.

Critical thinking requires one to be both willing and able to evaluate one’s thinking. It may be used in situations in which one does not have all of the relevant information; some information may be undiscovered or even unknowable. It may also be used when one makes unjustified inferences, uses inappropriate concepts, or fails to notice crucial implications. One's thinking may be unclear, inaccurate, imprecise, irrelevant, narrow, shallow, illogical, or trivial, due to ignorance or misapplication of the appropriate skills of thinking. On the other hand, one's thinking might be criticized as being the result of a sub-optimal disposition. The dispositional dimension of critical thinking focuses on developing the intention to be truth-seeking, open-minded, and systematic analytical, inquisitive, confident in reasoning, and prudent in making judgments. People who have the opposite disposition (being biased, intolerant, arrogant, lazy, heedless of consequences, and mistrustful of information) are more likely to encounter problems in their critical thinking.

Intellectual skills are not enough to have strong critical thinking capabilities. Being a good critical thinker requires humility, empathy, integrity, perseverance, courage, autonomy, and confidence in reasoning. Critical thinking without these traits usually results in clever, manipulative, and unethical thought.

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th ed. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.

"An Introduction to Critical Thinking"

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Thinking Critically

Ashley Ming

Critical thinking studies a subject or problem with open-mindedness. The process begins with a statement of what is to be studied, proceeds to unrestricted discovery and consideration of possibilities, and concludes with a pattern for understanding that is based on evidence. Motives, bias, and prejudice of both the learner as well as the experts are then compared and form the foundation of judgment. There are some strategies to thinking critically, so I will be discussing them to hopefully help people understand thinking critically and some of the things you can look at when trying to make a decision.

Enter with an open mind:

• Define your destination, what you want to learn
• Clarify or verify with your teacher or an "expert" your subject

Topics can be simple phrases:
"The role of gender in video game playing"
"Political history of France between the Great Wars of the first half of the Twentieth Century"
"Mahogany tree cultivation in Central America"
"Domestic plumbing regulations in the suburbs"
"Vocabulary and structure of a human skeleton"

• Think about what you already know about the subject
• What do you already know that will help you in this study?
• What are your prejudices?
• What resources are available to you, and what is your timeline?
• Gather information

Keep an open mind so as not to close your options and for chance opportunities
• Ask questions

What are the prejudices of the authors of the information?
• Organize what you have collected into patterns to understand it

Look for connections
• Ask questions (again!)
• Think in terms of how you would demonstrate your learning for your topic

1. List, label, identify, demonstrate knowledge
2. Define, explain, summarize in your own words Comprehend/understand
3. Solve, apply to a new situation. Use your learning; apply it
4. Compare and contrast, differentiate between items. Analyze
5. Create, combine, invent. Synthesize
6. Assess, recommend, value. Evaluate and explain why

Think in terms of making your learning an adventure in exploration!

Critical thinking is about being both willing and able to evaluate one's thinking. Thinking might be criticized because one does not have all the relevant information - indeed, important information may remain undiscovered, or the information may not even be knowable - or because one makes unjustified inferences, uses inappropriate concepts, or fails to notice important implications. One's thinking may be unclear, inaccurate, imprecise, irrelevant, narrow, shallow, illogical, or trivial, due to ignorance or misapplication of the appropriate skills of thinking. On the other hand, one's thinking might be criticized as being the result of a sub-optimal disposition. The dispositional dimension of critical thinking is character logical. Its focus in developing the habitual intention to be truth-seeking, open-minded, systematic, analytical, inquisitive, confident in reasoning, and prudent in making judgments.

There is no simple way to develop the intellectual traits of a critical thinker. One important way requires developing one's intellectual empathy and intellectual humility. The first requires extensive experience in entering and accurately constructing points of view toward which one has negative feelings. The second requires extensive experience in identifying the extent of one's own ignorance in a wide variety of subjects (ignorance whose admission leads one to say, "I thought I knew, but I merely believed").

One becomes less biased and more broad-minded when one becomes more intellectually empathic and intellectually humble, and that involves time, deliberate practice and commitment. It involves considerable personal and intellectual development.
To develop one's critical thinking traits, one should learn the art of suspending judgment (for example, when reading a novel, watching a movie, engaging in dialogical or dialectical reasoning). Ways of doing this include adopting a perceptive rather than judgmental orientation; that is, avoiding moving from perception to judgment as one applies critical thinking to an issue.

One should become aware of one's own fallibility by:
1. accepting that everyone has subconscious biases, and accordingly questioning any reflexive judgments;
2. adopting an ego-sensitive and, indeed, intellectually humble stance;
3. recalling previous beliefs that one once held strongly but now rejects;
4. tendency towards group think; the amount your belief system is formed by what those around you say instead of what you have personally witnessed;
5. Realizing one still has numerous blind spots, despite the foregoing.

When trying to become better at thinking critically, you should go into the situation with an open-mind, systematically, analytically, inquisitive, be confident in reasoning, and prudent in making judgments.

Solving Problems

By: Shannon Titus and Bev Johnson

Solving Problems

Everybody is faced with problems almost every day of their life such as problems with school, problems at work, or even problems with your family. So, we are all alike in that we face challenges every day. The way in which we all differ is how we handle the problems. Facing up to our problems and dealing with them is hard, but if you rise to the challenge you come out of the situation a better, stronger, and more intelligent person. The people who come out on top after dealing with a problem usually are organized and have an informed approach to dealing with the problem. Those people who rarely come out with a solution to the problem most times do not have their thoughts and actions organized. They either jump right in without thinking through what would be the best course of action, or they avoid the problem altogether, which does not make the problem go away. Do not distress if you fall into the second category, for this chapter stresses that becoming an adept problem solver is a learned skill. By following the steps outlined herein you can become an expert problem solver.

The first step in problem solving is acceptance of the problem. Before you can start to solve a problem you must first realize that the problem does exist and make a commitment to try to solve it. Throughout the history of the United States is has been a problem getting our leaders to recognize that there is a problem and getting them to do something about solving it. One such example was the Reagan Administration. Dr. Manning Marble of the University of Colorado states that, "The shattering assault against the economic, social, and political status of the black American community as a whole is symbolized by the Reagan Administration in the 1980's. The Civil Rights Commission was gutted; affirmative action became a 'dead letter'…" If you are a person who has trouble in this first stage there are five simple strategies that might motivate you.

The first strategy is making a list of all of the benefits that will come from successfully dealing with the problem. This list is also good for encouragement when you encounter difficult situations while dealing with the problem. The second strategy is to formalize your acceptance. You can do this by signing some sort of document that will also serve to remind you of your original intentions should your resolve weaken during the process. The third strategy is very important in that it is you accepting responsibility for your life. When you take charge of your own life and start to accept responsibility for your own actions than you can become a critical thinker. Strategy four is to create a “worst-case” scenario. A lot of problems continue to exist because we ignore the consequences of our actions.

Such as how a smoker tends to ignore the fact that their actions cannot only cause health problems, but can cause you to live a shorter life. If we write down the worst-case scenario involving our problem than we are unable to ignore the possible consequences. Finally, you have to identify what is holding you back. If you are having difficulties with facing a problem it is usually because something, or someone, is holding you back. These issues will continue to hold you back until you acknowledge them and deal with them one at a time. After you have accepted that the problem does exist the first step in solving the problem is defining what the problem is. This step can be broken down into three phases Phase one is to ask yourself, “What do I know about the situation.” In this step you sort what you know from what you think. You also list what your strengths are and also what outside resources you could use to help you solve your problem.

Another important task in this phase is figuring out how the problem developed. If you know how a problem came into being than you can try to prevent it from happening again. Phase two is to put into words what results you are wanting in this situation. Phase three is to ask yourself, “How can I define the problem?” You can answer this question by viewing the problem from other perspectives than your own, identify the small subparts of the problem that make it rather large, and then state the problem clearly. Or, at least as clearly as you can for when solving a problem sometimes the actual problem does not become clear until you are actually in the process of solving it. The next step in problem solving is to identify and examine all of the alternative actions you can take to solve the problem. In order to do this you have to know what the boundaries of the situation are, such as things in the situation that cannot be changed.

Sometimes it is hard to think of all of the possible actions that can be taken. To help you in this matter you can discuss the problem with other people, brainstorm ideas, and sometimes something as simple as leaving the location of the problem to think can help you approach the problem in a different way. The next step is to identify what the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative are. For instance, in this country there is a huge problem with rape and part of the problem lies in women who have been victimized not feeling like they can come forward and tell about what happened to them. The reason they feel like they cannot come forward is stated adequately by Nancy Gibbs of Time Magazine when she says, "…serves to remind women that if they go ahead and press charges, they can expect to go on trial along with their attacker, if not in a courtroom then in the court of public opinion."

In this step you should gather any information you need to correctly evaluate each alternative. Step four in the problem solving process involves deciding on a solution. Even though you may not be certain about what the solution should be by going through all of the previous steps you should have a clear idea about the problem, and also know what immediate steps should be taken. Sometimes this can involve combining two or more alternatives that you had previously come up with. The final step in the problem solving process is evaluating how well the solution that you chose is working.

To be a good critical thinker you have to be open to the possibility that you may have to modify your solution a little, or change it entirely if it does not seem to be working. A couple of ways to be able to tell if your solution is working is to look back at your goals and compare them with the actual results and to ask other people’s opinions about the situation. Be careful when you ask for other people’s opinions, though, because if you don’t ask specific questions you will probably get vague, unhelpful, answers.

(References: David Shenk, "Young Hate," Nancy Gibbs, "When Is It Rape?," Time, June 3, 1991.)

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Problem Solving

Ryan Edmundson, Tyler Anderson, Jared Hall

Problem solving forms part of thinking. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions, problem solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of more routine or fundamental skills (Wikipedia).

Problem solving is a major part of our every day lives, and most people don’t realize how big the process is. Sure there are some people who are very impulsive and just go with whatever decision pops into their heads, but if we look those people tend to make the worst decisions. Every now and then it doesn’t hurt to make an impulse decision, but on most decision it is wisest to use the actual problem solving process.

The first step in the problem solving method is defining what the problem is. There are multiple stages to doing this. First ask yourself what you know about the situation. Who are the people involved in this situation, who will benefit from solving this problem, who can help me solve this problem, …etc. The next stage is what results are you aiming for in the situation. And the last stage is how to define the problem. You can do this by looking at the problem in a different perspective, identifying component problems, and lastly clearly and specifically stating the problem.

The second step in the problem solving method is knowing what the alternatives are. The first step in doing this is finding the boundaries of the situation. What are the boundaries that cannot change and have to be worked around? The step after that is deciding what alternatives are possible within these boundaries. That simply means that you need to find what courses of action can be taken within the boundaries that you found earlier.

The next step in the method is deciding what the advantages an/or disadvantages of each alternative are. Of course the fist step in this is looking at the possible advantages. Then the obvious next step is deciding on the disadvantages. This is all a pretty simple thing to do, but there is still one last stage. You must decide if there is any additional information you need to know to evaluate each alternative.

The fourth step is deciding what is the solution. You do this by first deciding which alternative(s) will you pursue. This is possible by evaluating and comparing the alternatives, combining alternatives, or even trying out each alternative in your imagination. Of course the last step is to choose an alternative and come up with the steps that need to be taken to do the alternative you have chosen.

The last step in the decision-making method is evaluating how well your solution in working. Firstly, you need to come up with your evaluation. Compare your results with your goal and see how well it has worked out. The other step to do this is by getting other perspectives. Then the last and most important step is to decide what adjustments are necessary to produce the results that you are looking for.

These are the steps that are taken when nearly all major decisions are made by pretty much everyone. And they are excellent steps to be taken! But even considering this, creativity is not a bad thing either. Creativity can still fit in to the process, and in many ways it should be involved. Many times the creative solution ends up being the best one. If you were to drop a ball in a well, how are you going to get it out? Are you going to put a ladder in the well and crawl down, or try to fish it out somehow? Perhaps the best solution, and most creative, is to fill the well with water and let the ball float to the top. Isn’t the problem solving process an amazing thing.

Thinking Critically. Boston: Houghton Mifflin College Division, 2007.

Wikipedia

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Problem Solving

Cory Little and Keith Carey

Problem solving is one of the most basic things we learn, and begins at a very early age. When we are little we learn how to open doors, or get to the cookie jar, or even use the toilet. During school you are faced with quizzes, homework, exams, and papers. Simple problems like these usually don’t require a systematic analysis. For example, on a quiz all you need to do is define the problem (what is the question asking me), you need to identify and evaluate the possible alternatives (what is a reasonable way to reach a solution), and then reach a final solution to the question. But, the more difficult problems in life sometimes require more attention.

Your quality of life can usually be traced back to your skills in problem-solving. The best problem solvers are usually the ones that approach these problems in an organized and informed way. Poor problem solvers usually have no definitive way of reaching a solution and rarely find the “right” answer. It is very possible for you to be a great problem solver in one aspect of your life, and a terrible one in another.

There are 5 steps to evaluating a problem. First you must identify the problem, which may sound easier than it sometimes is. When there is a complex situation you may need to search through the details to find the real problem. To solve a problem you must first accept that there is a problem. You may ask yourself such questions as: what do you know about the problem, and what results am I aiming for in solving this problem.

Next is identifying the alternatives, or the different decisions you can make. Because there are usually a number of alternatives it is sometimes easier to discuss the problem with another person to come up with definitive decision.

The third step is evaluating the alternatives, weighing the advantages and disadvantages of all of them. In this step you decide the best plan of action. Every decision has advantages and disadvantages, and it is for this reason that making a chart sometimes helps to clear things up. On the chart you can write the advantages and disadvantages for each decision, and evaluate them accordingly.

The fourth step is determining the solution. This is picking the right alternative for the situation and taking the steps needed to act on that decision. After evaluating all pieces of the problem you should have an increased understanding of the problem. Even if you do not find an immediate solution to the problem, analyzing the problem sometimes helps to clarify things.

The final step is judging how well the solution is working. If the solution is not working you must be able to modify the solution until it works for you. Evaluating the solution is a huge portion of critical thinking. Some of the time no matter which road you take to solve a problem the solution you choose will be doomed no matter what you do. A good critical thinker recognizes this and molds the non-working solution until it solves the problem.

References

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th ed. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.

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PROBLEM SOLVING

Catherine Rohr

Each day of your life you solve problems whether you realize it or not. These may include problems at home, at work, or at school. Simple problems do not require a systemic or a complex analysis, but complicated problems require more attention. Some people are superior problem solvers and this is due to their ability to approach problems in an informed and organized way. The less competent problem solvers use hit-or-miss strategies that are unlikely to provide great results. Becoming an expert problem solver is something that can be learned and you can develop it by practicing and applying principles.

When solving problems you need to ask series of questions including:

What is the problem?
What do I know about the situation?
What results am I aiming for in this situation?
How can I define the problem?
What are the alternatives?
What are the boundaries of the problem situation?
What alternatives are possible within these boundaries?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative?
What are the advantages of each alternative?
What are the disadvantages of each alternative?
What additional information do I need to evaluate each alternative?
What is the solution?
Which alternative(s) will I pursue?
What steps can I take to act on the alternative(s) chosen?
How well is the solution working?
What is my evaluation?
What adjustments are necessary?

When solving problems you have to be able to accept, acknowledge, identify, and commit yourself to try and solve the existing problem. There are a number of strategies that may be useful to help you with the problem solving process, these include:

• List the benefits
• Formalize your acceptance
• Accept responsibility for your life
• Create a “worst-case” scenario
• Identify what is holding you back

There are five steps in solving problems once you have accepted the problem. First of all you have to identify the problem. If you can not clearly understand the problem then how will you solve it? You need to determine what information you already have and will still need. To do this you can ask the 5 W’s (who, what, when, where, why) and H (how). To define the problem you need to view the problem from different perspectives, identify component problems, and state the problem clearly and specifically. In step 2 you need to figure out what your boundaries are and what alternatives are possible with these boundaries. To generate a full range of innovative possibilities you can discuss the problem with other people, brainstorm, and change your location. Step 3 you will evaluate the alternatives by using evaluation questions.

What are the advantages / disadvantages of each alternative? Will I need additional information to evaluate these alternatives? In step 4 you are putting everything back together so you can decide your course of action. What are you pursuing? To help solve the problem you might select alternatives including; evaluate and compare alternatives, combine alternatives, and to try out each alternative in your own imagination. After choosing the correct alternative it is now time to pursue what action you are taking by planning specific steps. The last step is to determine how well the solution is working. To evaluate this compare the results with the goals and get other perspectives. Also you need to make any necessary adjustments.

REFERENCES
Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th ed. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.

Perceiving and Believing

Perceiving and Believing

By: Shannon Titus and Bev Johnson

Perceiving is the process of becoming aware of your world through your senses. You learn how your perceiving process works, how what you perceive affects your beliefs about everything, and also how both your beliefs and what you perceive affect your ability to think effectively. No two people see something in the exact same way. That is because we all have “lenses” over our eyes that effect the way that we see things. It is important that you are aware of your own lenses and other’s lenses as well. Your own lenses may be causing bias or distortion and being aware of other’s lenses helps you understand why they view things the way they do. A time in history when several people were at the same event, but viewed the event very differently was when Malcolm X was assassinated.

In the New York Times it stated that, "The police said seven bullets struck Malcolm." In the Amsterdam News is was reported that, "Malcolm X was shot four times while addressing a crowd at the Audubon Ballroom on 166th Street." We all have different experiences in life but we all experience life through our senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste. Your senses are constantly being bombarded with different images, sounds, odors, textures, and tastes. It could all be a bit overwhelming if your body didn’t handle the situation naturally. For instance, your sensory equipment only receives input within certain limits. Also, from all of the stimuli presented you automatically select only a few to focus your attention on. You are not just an empty vessel that soaks up all sensory experiences, you are an active participant in what you perceive. Your experiences are based on the combination of the sensations you have and how you come to understand those sensations.

When you are perceiving things your mind automatically and very quickly selects the sensations that you are going to pay attention to, organizes these sensations into some sort of design or pattern, and then interprets what this design or pattern means to you. We usually don’t question our interpretation of things until we find that our interpretation varies greatly from the view of someone else watching the same event take place. Your perception all depends on how actively you are using your mind to analyze what you see.

There are many factors influencing your perception. The way you were raised, your life’s experiences, past relationships, and your education all factor in to the way that we perceive things. The fact of whether or not we have an interest in the matter also changes how we perceive things. If you are a poet you are going to perceive poetry quite a bit differently than the average person who has no interest in poetry. Your life’s experiences definitely shape your perceptions. Take for instance the girl who never had an interest in any world problems until her father died of AIDS. Suddenly, through personal experience, her perception changed and she became more actively involved in helping to ease the problems in our world today. How you perceive the world around you is an important part of the thinking process. Although you must not rely solely on your perceptions for understanding because of the “lenses” that we all wear.

In order to understand without biases you must pick apart your perceptions and analyze them. The process of thinking criticially when it comes to your perceptions allows you to form your own beliefs, and also constructs what you know about the world. Beliefs are interpretations, evaluations, conclusions, or predictions about the world that we believe are true. Our personal beliefs help us understand the world and also instruct us on how to act. When you break down the definition of beliefs to better understand it you come up with four very different categories. The first in an interpretation which means your personal explanation for something.

An evaluation is a judgment that you have made about the value or quality of something. An opinion that you form after considering evidence is referred to as a conclusion. And finally, a prediction is a statement you make about what you believe is going to happen in the future. Your perceptions and your beliefs have a very interactive relationship. Your perceptions are how you form your beliefs, but your beliefs influence your perceptions. In order to be a critical thinker you must always be aware of this relationship and watch it very closely.

Most beliefs are not the same and in this chapter they focus on three types of beliefs that we use to grasp an understanding of the world. The first of these is reports and you are said to be reporting factual information when what you say can be verified by one or more of your senses. Reports are an important way for us to learn from other’s experiences instead of having to rely only on our own experiences. It is important when we are reporting information that we make it as accurate as possible. When you make statements about something that may be based on facts but you add something to your statement that is not known than you are said to be inferring. This happens when we make statements about something that cannot be directly observed. Much of our knowledge about the world comes from the fact that we make inferences. When you make a statement about an object based on your evaluations you are judging that object.

Most people evaluate an object using certain criteria. In most cases when you judge someone you are either expressing your approval or disapproval of that person. Sometimes it is very important, though, that you not make your judgments based on your personal opinion, such as in a court of law. When we make our judgments known it often causes conflict with other people who do not believe the same way. In such a case you need to make clear the criteria you used to make this judgment. You also need to have evidence to support your criteria. If you have both of these things you can usually engage in an intelligent conversation with someone about whose judgment is supported by the evidence instead of having a brawl over the subject. Always remember that if you report a judgment as fact it has the potential of harming others.

(References: The Amsterdam News, February 27, 1965: "On the Assassination of Malcolm X," The New York Times, February 22, 1965.)

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“Perceiving and Believing”

By Emily Walz

“Reality is what we take to be true. What we take to be true is what we believe. What we believe is based upon our perceptions. What we perceive depends upon what we look for. What we look for depends upon what we think. What we think depends upon what we perceive. What we perceive determines what we believe. What we believe determines what we take to be true. what we take to be true is our reality.”
Gary Zukav

Do we believe what we believe because we ourselves truly think it is the truth or do we believe because we have been conditioned to treat certain topics with a biased reaction that becomes our reality? Obviously the mainstream media such as NBC, ABC and TBS affect our perception of many things, but mainly President Obama. They show Obama in one light; that being, that he does no wrong. On the other hand, FOX news shows you the unbiased version of Obama so you can choose how you will perceive the information you are being fed and after evaluating the facts you end up with information leading to the conclusion that you believe only what you know as the truth on the issue.

Obama says, "I'm asking you to believe. Not just in my ability to bring about real change in Washington. I'm asking you to believe in yours.” What are we supposed to be believing in or changing? Should people miles away actually believe that they can contribute to change in Washington D.C.? Or is it when he said, “Change we believe in” that really hit closer to home? Sure it is a spark of inspiration with the hope of change in a good way, but as our economy continues to fall deeper into disaster it is difficult to be optimistic about anything.

Perceiving and believing hit a home run with classic the examples of the tooth fairy, the Easter bunny, Santa Claus, and many more. These are all perfectly believable, because we are taught at a young age that each brings something we look forward to. So why do we really believe in these stories? In order to perceive something you must become aware of it and identify it by means of the senses. This includes touch, smell, taste, sight and hearing. To believe you must have confidence that something is reliable without absolute proof. For example children believe in Santa because even though they never see the “real” Santa they feel excited before he comes, they physically sit on the lap of a man dressed in a Santa suit and hang stockings for him to fill, they see the gifts brought by him and the decorations with Santa and his reindeer, they hear the jingle of the bells and they taste and smell the cookies and milk they sit out for him. This makes us perceive him as real and the way we experience this over and over makes us believe. We are literally tricked by our own senses.

Perceiving and believing plays an important part in relationships and decision making as well. You may be in a relationship where your mind has been tricked into believing you can’t separate yourself from that person. In cases where the significant other displays abusive behavior, a belief develops that you can’t live without your abuser. You are capable of perceiving cuts, bruises, depression, anxiety and the loss of self worth and respect for yourself, but you still believe that he or she still loves you no matter what. Often if you separate and still have feelings for that person, you will feel sad every time you think of that person. This may occur when you see something that triggers a memory, such as something that tastes like a food you ate together, or a cologne that smells like that of the person you used to be with. These triggers make you believe you still want to be with that person. Often people return to their abusers. Once again, you are tricked by your senses.

“All we have to believe with is our senses, the tools we use to perceive the world: our sight, our touch, our memory. If they lie to us, then nothing can be trusted. And even if we do not believe, then still we cannot travel in any other way than the road our senses show us; and we must walk that road to the end.”
Neil Gaiman

References: Internet

Constructing Knowledge

Constructing Knowledge

By Brianna Elliott, Skyler Weissaar, Bryan Brewer

Certain and Less Certain Beliefs
“Beliefs are interpretations, evaluations, conclusions, and predictions about the world that we endorse as true (John Chaffee)” They help you to explain why the world is the way it is and they help you to make everyday decisions. Unfortunately beliefs are not equal. Some beliefs are certain and some less certain. Certain beliefs are the beliefs that you know are true, like people like people dying. You are able to back up this type of belief with evidence. Less certain beliefs are those that you aren’t able to back like there is life on other planets. Can you support this belief?

Knowledge and Truth
Knowledge and truth play a very important role in the believing process. Over time many people develop knowledge through the learning process through experiences. Those people then will go and use that knowledge and will find that many people will disagree with them on many beliefs. Those that disagree will argue and seek truth on the issue. Knowledge and truth should be everyone’s goals to achieve.

Three Stages of the Knowing Process
There are three stages to the knowing process The Garden Of Eden, Anything Goes, and Thinking Critically. The first stage is The Garden of Eden in this stage knowledge is given by authority figures. Those receiving this knowledge believes that the authority figure is all knowing, and those who disagree with them are completely wrong. The second stage is The Anything Goes stage. In this stage there is a lot of disagreement and no one knows what the truth is. The belief becomes a balance of no one’s right and no one’s wrong. Basically it’s the zombie stage of confusion without understanding. The last stage is stage three, Thinking Critically. This stage is where we should all strive to get to. In this stage beliefs can be presented to an individual and that individual can decide for themselves what is true. They do this by determining accuracy of evidence and by exploring every perspective of that belief there is to explore. After all the exploring is done the individual who is questioning the belief can develop a new belief. The Critical Thinking stage is the highest level you can achieve in the knowing process and the best.

How Do You Get To Stage Three?
Getting to stage three can be hard but if you take your time you can make it. First you need to know what stage you are currently residing in. This can be done by thinking of the people in your life and especially consider the professionals and non professionals, and ask yourself where do you see these people in the knowing process. Are they a level one, a level two or are they a level three. Next you can ask yourself about what your beliefs are on education, professional’s area of expertise, science, moral issues, human nature, social relationships, child-rearing, and aesthetic area’s (i.e. beauty). While you’re thinking about each of these areas ask yourself what stage of the knowing process do you lie in, in each area. After doing this you should have a general idea of where you’re at in the stages. Next you need to evaluate your thinking process or how you form beliefs and reach conclusions about the world. All your beliefs constitute your philosophy of life. If you constantly evaluate your beliefs and apply intellectual standards and make yourself more accurate on your beliefs you will be well on your way to becoming a critical thinker.

Two Types of Believing Ways
There are two types of ways you believe in that is through direct and indirect experiences. Direct experiences are those beliefs that you actually experienced and learned by. An indirect experience is those beliefs based off of oral and written communication. Unfortunately both direct and indirect experiences have their downfall. Direct Experiences only allow you to be in one place at one time and don’t allow you enough time to experience. Resulting in relying on others for their beliefs in which we tend to take in and when we go to develop out own belief in the same area we are under the influence of that other person’s belief. Our mind becomes clouded. When it comes down to indirect experiences are sources aren’t always reliable.

What It Comes Down To
It all comes down to developing knowledge and thinking critically about our beliefs.

References

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.
Model Learning
Halpern, D. F., & Associates. (1994). Changing college classrooms: New teaching and learning strategies for an increasingly complex world. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass

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Constructing Knowledge

By: Shannon Titus/Bev Johnson

Our perception of the world does not stay the same always. As we go through experiences and reflect on those experiences our perceptions change. By using critical thinking involving our perceptions and by keeping an open mind when it comes to other’s perceptions we continue to develop in our understanding of the world. By growing in our understanding of the world we are better able to develop informed beliefs. We rely heavily on our beliefs in our lives. Our beliefs guide us in almost everything that we do including how we act. Not all beliefs are completely accurate, though. Some beliefs are what we call certain, that is that they are supported by evidence. Other beliefs are less certain in that some people believe in them but others are highly doubtful.

It is important to have accurate beliefs because they can increase your understanding of the world and also help you predict future events. When people are stating their beliefs they often say that they “know” this belief to be true. Before you take for fact what this person claims to 'know' you should always remember how our personal "lenses" shape what we believe. Sonja Tanner in "On Plato's Cave" stresses this when she says, "When we are unaware as to how perceptual lenses shape what it is we then believe, the information we receive and the beliefs we build upon this information may be distorted…" When you state that you “know” something it is assumed that you mean at least two different things. One is that you think this belief is accurate. Two is that you can explain the evidence supporting this belief. One way that we work at evaluating whether or not our beliefs are right is by closely examining the justification for the beliefs. You want your beliefs to be accurate and justified. Proving that your beliefs are justified can be a daunting task.

Everything about the critical thinking process undermines what we have been taught our whole lives. As a young child you are taught that your parents are always right and that you should always listen to them without comment. As a school child you are taught a certain way to do things and are told to never question this way. As we get older we are taught that authorities are always right and the person who dares question them must be wrong. In critical thinking people have a duty to be actively engaged in their learning process and to ask questions to develop their understanding of the world. How can we take for fact what authorities say when so many authorities disagree about every subject?

When authorities disagree it is the critical thinker’s responsibility to gather all of the information needed to accurately evaluate the belief, develop a belief off of this information, but always be prepared to change, or modify, this belief should more compelling evidence come to light. When evaluating the beliefs you should take into consideration some criteria such as does the belief accurately explain the situation that is taking place. You also want to take into consideration whether this belief is in line with other beliefs that you have. You also have to consider whether the belief has strong evidence supporting it, and how reliable the source was that you received this evidence from. It is also important that the belief be falsifiable. This means that you could run tests wherein the belief could be disproved, but the belief passed the tests anyways. It is important as a critical thinker to always strive for knowledge and truth, and also to understand that your beliefs will continue developing over time.

There are three different stages that a person must pass through in order to become a critical thinker. The first stage is known as the Garden of Eden. People in this stage believe in an absolute wrong and an absolute right. There are no gray areas. They rely completely on authorities for their beliefs and never question these beliefs. When authorities disagree people in the Garden of Eden stage become restless with the beliefs and some set out to prove that “their” authority knows more than all of the other authorities. This explanation simply does not hold up because you have to prove that your authority is correct. When this happens you have progressed to Stage Two which is the anything goes stage. It is stated that not all people progress to Stage Two. In order to move on you have to have the emotional willingness and the ability to be open-minded about other beliefs.

In the anything goes stage you have finally shed the belief in black and white, in fact people tend to go to the opposite extreme in this stage. The anything goes stage is exactly as it says. No one belief is any better than another, which causes a major problem when it comes to dealing with conflict. Once the people in this stage realize that the “anything goes” theory does not really work with their beliefs they move up to the next stage which is thinking critically. The other two stages come together somewhat in this stage. When people reach this stage they understand that some beliefs are superior to others, but they also keep an open-mind about other beliefs. Stage three thinkers actively seek out people with opposing viewpoints so that they can gain a better understanding. While they are willing to listen to other beliefs that are backed by evidence they are firm in their own beliefs.

We cannot always depend on our own experiences to form our belief system. Many times we have beliefs that are based on other people’s experiences, or indirect experience. Your critical thinking skills must be fine tuned when it comes to believing what other people tell you. This is never more true than when you have a situation where one person gives two different accounts of an event. Such an incident took place after the events that unfolded at Tiananmen Square in 1989. Immediately after the event Xiao Bin, an eyewitness at the scene, stated that, "Tanks and armored personnel carriers rolled over students, squashing them into jam, and the soldiers shot at them and hit them with clubs. When students fainted, the troops killed them. After they died, the troops fired one more bullet into them. They also used bayonets. They were too cruel, I never saw such things before." His story drastically changed, though, after he had been taken into custody by the Chinese Authorities when he said, "I never saw anything. I apologize for bringing great harm to the party and the country."

Two important things that you must consider when evaluating these beliefs is how reliable the information is and also how reliable the source of the information is. You do not have to go at this blind, though. There are three criteria that have been developed for evaluating written and spoken testimony. The first is dealing with how accurately the source was able to make observations. The second is dealing with how reliable the source of the information has been in the past. The third is deciding how much knowledge about the information the source has. When dealing with an internet source it is always better to stay on the side of caution.

(References: Xiao Bin : Sonja Tanner, "On Plato's Cave")

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Constructing Knowledge

By Samantha Wheelbarger

Believing and Knowing
There is a very big difference when you start talking about believing and knowing things. When you say I believe something it is your opinion with mostly little evidence to support it. When you say I know something you need to have factually evidence to prove what you are saying and you need to be able to prove it if necessary. If you can not prove your statement of knowing something then no one will believe you. As said in the text book “The key pint is that as a critical thinker, you should continually try to form and revise your beliefs so that you can understand the work in increasingly effective way.

Knowledge and Truth
Knowledge and truth is not the same thing at all. There is a difference between the two which most people tend to get wrong. Most people think that knowledge and truth is absolutely not changeable but it is. When we are kids we are told to listen to our elders and they know everything. But in real life we have to listen to what we need to and put our own perspective on thing. If we believe everything we are told we are putting ourselves in bad circumstances. Knowledge is defined by the dictionary as: the fact or condition of knowing something with familiarity gained through experience or association. Truth is defined as: conformity to fact or actuality.

Stages of Knowing
There are three stages of knowing that are most important.
Stage 1: The Garden of Eden
People in the Garden of Eden stage of knowing see the world in black and white, right and wrong. They are the ones who listen to their elders and believe everything they are told. They believe that what they say is right is right and what they say is wrong is wrong. They normally don’t have many beliefs except the ones they are told. They don’t go out and look for answers to see what is right and wrong or look up stuff to prove or disprove by them selves.

Stage 2: Anything Goes
These people in the stage of Anything Goes well, they believe anything that they are told is right. Whether it is an elder or just another peer they believe anything they are told. They believe that no one point of view is better than they other. The people in this stage are almost like a little kid. They think they are wrong and you are wrong. The ones who get in trouble who can think they can do whatever they want because they have seen other people doing it.

Stage 3: Thinking Critically
When people get to the stage of Thinking Critically, the have hit a level of understanding, they recognize that some viewpoints are better than other viewpoints. They get to these understandings because if they are told something then they look to either prove it of disprove it. They go find the right answers and find what is right from wrong. They see the world in color; they know the difference in their life.

There is all other kinds of ideas about how the stages of knowing go. Baxter Magolda has is own. They are: State of Absolute Knowing, Transitional Knowing, Independent Knowing, and Contextual Knowing.

Linda Elder and Richard Paul have there own stages of knowing also. They are: Stage One: The Unreflective Thinker, Stage Two: The Challenged Thinker, Stage Three: The Beginning Thinker, Stage Four: The Practicing Thinker, Stage Five: The Advanced Thinker, Stage Six: The Master Thinker. So people tend to have their own stages of knowing process and it works. They are all mostly they same and all start and end at the same place.

Two Ways of Thinking
There are two types of ways to believe in: that is through direct and indirect experiences. Direct experiences are those beliefs that you actually had experienced with and something you learned. An indirect experience is those beliefs based off of oral and written communication. Direct Experiences only allow you to be in one place at one time and don’t allow you enough time to experience what you need to. Resulting in relying on others for their beliefs in which we tend to take in. It’s what we seem to base our beliefs on. Our mind becomes clouded. When it comes down to indirect experiences are sources are the one thing we can turn to, but they are not always correct.

Reference: The Free Dictionary
Merriam-Webster Dictionary
Linda Elder and Richard Paul
Baxter Magolda

Language and Thought

Language and Thought

By: Skyler Weisshaar, Brianna Elliott,Bryan Brewer

Every time we use language, we send a message about our thinking. We convey ideas, share feelings, and describe experiences when we write or speak. Language itself influences and shapes thinking. When you speak sloppily or vaguely, it shows that your thinking sloppily and vaguely. When you speak clearly and use precise thinking, it shows that your thinking clearly and precisely in your writing, speaking and thinking. Its vital to use language with clarity and precision to allow others to understand your thoughts that your trying to communicate to them.

The evolution of language shows how the language and how words transformed over several years. The example used to demonstrate this is the Lord’s Prayer. The Old English version is as follows: Faeder ure thu the eart on heofonum, si thin name garaged. Tobecume thin rice. Gewurthe thin willa on eorthan swa swa on heofonum. Urne gedaeghwamlican hlaf syle you to daeg. And forgyf you urne gyltas, swa swa you forgyfath urum gyltendum. And ne gelaed thu you on costnunge, ac alys you of yfele. Sothlice. And now the Middle English version goes like this: Oure fadur that art in hauenes, halewid be thi name; thi kyngdoom come to; be thi wile don in erthe as in heuene; zyue to vs not in to temptacioun, but delyuere vs from yeul. Amen. And now the version that is known as Early Modern English: Our Father which art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done, in earth, as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil: for Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory for ever, Amen. As you read the above versions of the Lord’s Prayer you can see the differences in the sounds that would be made, the words, and sentences.

The symbolic nature of language talks about how we use symbols to represent other things. Humans are able to communicate with each other because of our ability to symbolize, or let one thing represent something else. Words are most common symbols we use in out daily lives. Although words are only sounds or written marks that have no meaning in and of themselves, they stand for objects, ideas, and other aspects of human experiences. They symbolize objects, thoughts, feelings, actions and concepts.

Semantic meaning of a word expresses the relationship between a linguistic event (speaking or writing) and a nonlinguistic event (an object, idea, or feeling). An example would be like saying “chair” relates to an object you sit in, while saying “college education” relates to the experience of earning an academic degree through postsecondary study.

Perceptual meaning of a word also includes its perceptual meaning, which expresses the relationship between a linguistic event and an individual’s consciousness. Words to us use elicit unique and personal thoughts and feelings based on previous experiences and past associations.

Syntactic meaning defines its relation to other words in a sentence. Syntactic relationships extend among all the words of a sentence that are spoken or written or that will be spoken or written. The syntactic meaning defines three relationships among words: content, description and connection.

Pragmatic meaning is the last element that contributes to the total meaning of a word which involves the person who is speaking and the situation in which the word is spoken. These meanings create the total meaning of a word.

Using language effectively you have to understand how language functions when it is used well. One way to do this is to read widely. Reading good writing gives you a feel for how language can be used effectively.

Using language to clarify thinking: language reflects thinking and thinking is shaped by language. Your thinking patterns of thinking breathe life into language, give both processes power. Language is a tool powered by patterns of thinking. With its power to represent your thoughts, feelings, and experiences symbolically, language is the most important tool your thinking process has. To improve your vague language usage just use more descriptive words and not just general, nonspecific words.

Using language in social contexts shows language styles. Language is always used in a context. This means you always write or speak with an audience, whether a person or group of people, in mind. The audience may include friends, coworkers, strangers, or only yourself. We all belong to social groups in which we use styles that separate “insiders” from “outsiders.” We use social contexts to determine the relationships between the people communicating. Standard American English is most used in academic and workplace writing that follows the rules and conventions given in handbooks and taught in school. Slang are words that people use from taking something and changing it to mean the same thing as the original word like someone saying “ hey she’s beautiful” to “hey she’s smoking hot.” Jargons are made up of words, expressions, and technical terms that are intelligible to professional circles or interest groups but not to the general public. Dialects are boundaries of geographical regions and ethnic groups that use different language patterns to communicate the same things that we do but do it with different symbols. The social boundaries of language show differences in language between like older people to younger ones.

Using language to influence is the intimate relationship between language and thinking makes it natural that people use language to influence the thinking of others. Two types of language are often used to promote the uncritical acceptance of viewpoints: Euphemistic and Emotive languages. Euphemistic derives from a Greek word meaning “to speak with good words” and involves substituting pleasant, less objectionable way of saying something for a blunt or more direct way. Emotive language is what your immediate reaction to words are like sexy or bloodthirsty. Most of these words stimulate certain feelings in a person. This ability to evoke feelings in people accounts for the extraordinary power of language.

Our final thoughts on language explores the essential role of language in developing sophisticated thinking abilities. The goal of clear, effective thinking and communication, avoiding vagueness and ambiguity, is accomplished through the joint efforts of thought and language.

References

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.
The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. Copyright © 2009 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College.

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Language & Thought: How does it affect us?

By Christie Barnett, Ryan Downing, and Brianna Boyd

Language is a way of communicating between people. Not all language is words it is also body language. “Seven percent of language comes from spoken words, thirty-eight percent is from tone of voice, and fifty-five percent comes from body language,” (Wikipedia.com). “Language belongs to families,” (Thinking Critically). Languages are a lot like human beings; they change with the times and even die out. Examples of such languages are Phrygian, Old English, and Latin. The evolution of language shows how the language and how words transformed over several years. The example used to demonstrate this is the Lord’s Prayer.

The Old English version is as follows: Faeder ure thu the eart on heofonum, si thin name garaged. Tobecume thin rice. Gewurthe thin willa on eorthan swa swa on heofonum. Urne gedaeghwamlican hlaf syle you to daeg. And forgyf you urne gyltas, swa swa you forgyfath urum gyltendum. And ne gelaed thu you on costnunge, ac alys you of yfele. Sothlice. And now the Middle English version goes like this: Oure fadur that art in hauenes, halewid be thi name; thi kyngdoom come to; be thi wile don in erthe as in heuene; zyue to vs not in to temptacioun, but delyuere vs from yeul. Amen. And now the version that is known as Early Modern English: Our Father which art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done, in earth, as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil: for Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory for ever, Amen.

As you read the above versions of the Lord’s Prayer you can see the differences in the sounds that would be made, the words, and sentences. Language is a use of symbols. When you see a red octagon shaped sign it has the word stop on it. So when ever hear the word stop you automatically think of that red sign. Or the Golden Arches is another example, you think of McDonalds. Certain words trigger instant actions for process of thought. “Language is a system of symbols for thing and communicating,” (Thinking Critically). If you read things that are written correctly then you get a really good sense of how to use the language correctly. Language is used to reflect what we are thinking. Using clear and precise language helps to get a point across. It also helps to understand a concept to its fullest potential.

People also use different languages at different social environments. Such as work, at home with you and your family or even a school environment. Slang is used mostly by teenagers. Rednecks are the prime users of jargon. Jargon is words that are made up. Examples are “yantoo” meaning do you want to and “aight” meaning all right. “By developing insight into these language strategies you will strengthen your abilities to function as a critical thought. Language is used to influence the intimate relationship between language and the thinking that makes it a natural thing people use to influence the thinking of others. There are two different types of languages used to promote viewpoints. One is Euphemistic and Emotive languages. Its original meaning is Greek meaning “to speak with good words.” This involves substituting pleasant, less objectionable way of saying it bluntly or directly. Emotive language is what your reaction is to certain words like vivacious or foxy. These words mostly stimulate feelings in people and the ability to evoke feelings in people.

Sources:

“Body Language.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 14 Feb 2009. >
Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th ed. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.

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Slang

By Amy Blake

The ways American English has moved to a more youthful or shorter version. Language has changed and formed to all times and people through out history. It has changed between ages, genders, and even social groups. The changes that occur help fuels the exploding use of slang, jargon, and different dialects from modern American English. Modern American English follows rules and conduct. Modern American English is used in normal conversations, handbooks, and taught in schools. Slang, jargon, and dialect is used by many people, at many different times and places, for many different reasons.

Few linguists have endeavored to clearly define what constitutes slang. The glossary of Critical Thinking says Slang is a kind of language occurring chiefly in casual and playful speech, made up typically of short-lived coinages and figures of speech that are deliberately used in place of standard terms for added raciness, humor, irreverence, or other effect. Most people view slang as being used mostly by young adults to children. Most teenage slang words are use to describe and an action or feeling.

Some of the most commonly used slang words are:

Word -a statement of agreement
Chillaxing -relaxing+chilling
Props -giving gratitude or thanks
Dandy -nifty, good, or great
Pad -Home or place of residence
Tap that -hook up with someone

Jargon is another made up form of language using words, expressions, and technical terms. The most common use of Jargon is by truck drivers or people who work on the road. It is also used to short-hand orders at restaurants and bars. It may also be used on the internet and in text messaging.

Some examples of types of jargon are:

Roger -I got that
Back down -slow down
10-4 -I understand
Wrecking egg -scrabbled
Express -Fast
Smothered -lots of topping (gravy or veggies)
Blog -send a message or comment
Browse -search in many different site
Plug-in -get connected
411 -information
FYI -for your info.
182 -I hate you

American English derives from 17th century British English. Virginia and Massachusetts, the “original” colonies, were settled mostly by people from the south of England, especially London. The mid Atlantic area — Pennsylvania in particular — was settled by people from the north and west of England and by the Scots-Irish (descendents of Scottish people who settled in Northern Ireland). These sources resulted in three dialect areas — northern, southern, and midland. Over time, further dialects would develop.The Boston area and the Richmond and Charleston areas maintained strong commercial — and cultural — ties to England, and looked to London for guidance as to what was “class” and what was not.

Southern and south midland:
• "drawl" [lengthening, fronting, and raising vowels]
• /ai/ > /æ:/ in find, mind
• /oi/ > /o/ in boil, oil
• /u:/ > /yu:/ in due, tuesday
• au/ > /æu/ in out, doubt
• /e/ > /ei/ in bed, head
• /e/ > /i/ in pen, ten
• greasy > greazy
• carry > tote
• dragged > drug
• you > you all, y’all

Southern vs south midland:
• drop r’s — strong, sometimes retroflex, r’s
• wash: /wa:sh/ — /wosh/, /worsh/
• think: /thingk/ — /theingk/
• egg: /eg/ — /eig/
• moon: /mu:n/ — /mü:n/
• snake doctor — snake feeder
• snap beans — green beans
• goobers — peanuts

Northern vs north midland:
• fog, hog: /fag/, /hag/ — /fog/, /hog/
• roof: /ruf/, /huf/ — /ru:f/, /hu:f/
• cow, house: /kau/, /haus/ — /kæu/, /hæus/
• wash: /wa:sh/ — /wosh/, /worsh/
• darning needle — snake feeder
• pail — bucket
• teeter-totter — see-saw
• fire-fly — lightning-bug

Eastern New England, Boston area, Virginia area
• /æ/ frequently becomes /a/, e.g. in aunt, dance, glass
• Mary-marry-merry (/eir/-/ær/-/er/) distinctions preserved only in r-less areas, rapidly disappearing from American speech

NYC and north midland, and spreading rapidly
• loss of voiceless w: which > /wic/
• loss of voiceless y: human > /yum'n/

Concepts

Formatting and Applying Concepts

By: Alex Stewart and Terry Stiner

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Man And The Ozone

Man and the Ozone Ozone is perhaps one of the singularly most important molecules there is. No, not because man came from ozone, but because it forms a protective layer above the earth in it’s stratosphere which allowed for the growth of life upon land. Before we had an ozone layer, the rays of the sun struck the earth unimpeded, barraging it with the deadly ultraviolet radiation which prohibited any chance of life on earth. However, there was life in the oceans, plant life in particular. This plant life may seem unimportant, especially since it is algae that is being given the spotlight. The algae in the ocean produces oxygen gas (O2), which would rise through the water and up into the “air”, there it would be struck by the ultraviolet radiation, which changed the O2 into O3, which is ozone. This ozone gas has the unique ability to block out the vast majority of sunlight’s harmful ultraviolet radiation. This afforded for the growth of life on the earth’s surface. Despite the ozone layer, which helps block UV light and its radiation, some still gets through and can affect us. First it causes a nice looking tan, or a painful sunburn, however, deeper than that, it is wreaking havoc upon the skin cells, though this damage is cumulative, and is not visible for along time, it does great harm. The underlying problem is the massive amount of cars being used, and that number is increasing daily. Even with the emission guidelines, the sheer volume of cars in use overpowers all the safe operating levels. The only way to limit the number of vehicles in use is to promote a inexpensive mass transit alternative. I would propose that local governments set regulations based on state or national guidelines, that would force commuters to use the mass transit system a certain number of times yearly or seasonally.-

Reference

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.

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Forming and Applying Concepts

By: Bryan Brewer, Brianna Elliott, Skyler Weisshaar

Human thought is what separates us from the rest of the living world. Because we can actively think about problems to find solutions and not rely on pure instinct, we have become the dominant species on the planet. However, when we think, what are the subjects of our thoughts called? The answer to this question is a concept.

What is a concept? By definition, a concept is a general idea that we use to identify and organize our experiences. This means that concepts are the tools that our brains use to think. We can see a person walking down the street with an animal on a leash, and if that animal has certain characteristics that apply to the concept of a dog our brains have, we can assume that animal is a dog. Most people in the world could come to this conclusion, even if it was a species of dog that they had never seen before. People use concepts like these to process all of the information that they encounter in their lives.

There is also another way to define a concept. This alternate way of thinking describes the concept as an ability, rather than a mental representation of an object. For example, the concept of a ball, for this definition, would be described as the ability to recognize and set apart a ball from other kinds of things. With this ability, you would also be able to make inferences about the ball. You would be able to tell that a football is used for football, rather than a game of basketball or tennis. Philosophers today still argue about which view of the concept is correct, but for the remainder of this essay the idea of a concept as a representation will be used rather than as an ability.

Now, how do people come up with and separate different concepts? Let’s start by looking at the structure of a concept. A concept is reached by classifying examples of that concept, and understanding why they are classified a certain way. Then, a sign, or word, is given that names the concept. The word “dog” is an example of a sign. We then examine many referents, or examples, of a dog, and classify the information about them based on their properties. We reach a clear definition of the concept through a process of generalizing, which is focusing on certain similar features among things to develop the requirements for the concept, and interpreting, which is looking for different things to apply the concept to in order to determine if they meet the requirements of the concept we are developing. For example, we would learn that the traits of a dog are having four legs, two eyes, an elongated snout, a tail, fur, and pointed teeth.

We would then interpret this generalization by applying it to other things we see. Because of this, when you try to apply the concept being formed of a dog to a horse, you can see that a horse does not meet all of the requirements to be a dog, and therefore a horse does not fall into the concept of a dog. A repeated process of interpreting and generalizing will eventually lead to a clear, well-defined concept. However, not every generalization about a concept must be met in order for it to still be true. An example of this would be that dogs must have spots. While this is a characteristic of some dogs, it does not have to be true for all dogs. When you have narrowed down all of the requirements that must be met for something to fall into a particular concept, this set of generalizations are called necessary and proper.

When you apply a concept to a new experience, you classify it as to what concept it should belong. Many objects can be classified into different concepts. For example, you could classify a group of people based on their favorite food, their height, eye color, gender, or favorite band. In this same way an object can belong to two different concepts. A Corvette could belong to the concept of a luxury vehicle, or as a danger on the road. It depends on what values you are considering when you make the classification. If you were trying to pick people for a dodge ball team, you would probably classify your choices based on athletic ability and not favorite food choice.

Now that we have covered what a concept is and how to apply it in real life, how would you define a concept to someone else? In fact, you go through much the same process as you did when you first learned the concept yourself. You describe the necessary properties that decide on whether something can fall into the concept or not. You also would then give many examples of things that would fall into that concept, to further expand the definition of the concept and also better illustrates the necessary properties. This makes the overall definition of the concept you have explained much more useful when it comes to classifying new things or experiences. Another thing that is helpful is to point out things that do not fall into a concept and why they do not.

Concepts are the basis of all our human thoughts. They are the things that let us classify information, and process our experiences. The concept also gives humans the ability to reason out unknown things that are similar to our previous experiences (see the unknown dog species example above). If you think about the concept as the necessary requirement for human thought to occur, you can easily see how the concept is such an important part of philosophy. That was also an illustration of a concept, as you probably made the connections from a concept to thought, and then from thought to philosophy. Concepts are at work all of the time, and they are very important to the study of thought.

Works Cited
Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.
Margolis, Eric and Stephen Laurence, //"Concepts"//, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)

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Concepts and Mind Mapping

By Brianna Boyd, Christie Barnett and Ryan Downing

Developing your abilities as a thoughtful, clear-thinking, and articulate critical thinker requires becoming an expert in the use of concepts. They are the vehicles that we use to think about our world in organized way and discuss our understanding with other. To become knowledgeable critical thinkers and effective users of language, we must necessarily become masters of concepts.

We live in a world filled with concepts. A large number of the words you use to represent your experience express concepts you have formed. Music download, person, education, computer, sport, comedy, and thinking are only a few examples of concepts. In order to be successful in college or a career, you need to master the conceptualizing process because you’re learning new concepts all the time. For example, when you read textbooks or listen to lectures and take notes, you are required to grasp the key concepts and follow them as they are developed and supported. When you write papers or homework assignments, you are usually expected to focus on certain concepts, develop a thesis around them, present the thesis with carefully argued points, and back it up with specific examples. Many course examinations involve applying key concepts you have learned, just to new sets of circumstances.

You can relate these concepts to mind mapping. A mind map is a visual presentation of the ways in which concepts can be related to one another. They clearly represent different patterns of though which makes it an effective tool for helping us understand complex bodies of information. Here is an example of a mind map for what could help you decide what makes a good place to live:

Mind mapping is a flexible and effective tool that can be used in nearly every part of the learning and thinking process. A mapping approach offers some clear advantages in organizing the information you receive from oral communication. For instance, note taking, because you are taking what your instructor is saying and putting it into a more condensed format that is easier for you to understand and grasp the relationships between key concepts.

Along with reading, listening, and speaking, mapping is also useful for writing. First, the organization grows naturally, reflecting the way your mind naturally makes associations and organizes information. Second, the organization can be easily revised on the basis of new information and your developing understanding of how this information should be organized. Third, you can express a range of relationships among the various ideas, and each idea can remain an active part of the overall pattern, suggesting new possible relationships. Fourth , you do not have to decide initially on a beginning, subpoints, sup-subpoints, and so on; you can do this after your pattern is complete, saving time and avoiding frustration. Mind mapping is essential to productive and successful thinking.

In the same way that words are the vocabulary of language, concepts are the vocabulary of thought. Concepts are general ideas that we use to bring order and intelligibility to our experience. As organizers of our experience, concepts work in conjunction with language to identify, describe, distinguish, and relate all the various aspects of our world. They give us the means to understand our world and make informed decisions, to think critically and act intelligently.

To become a sophisticated thinker, you must develop expertise in the conceptualizing process, improving your ability to:

• Form concepts through the interactive process of generalizing and interpreting
• Apply concepts by matching their necessary requirements to potential examples
• Relate concepts to each other in various patterns

This complex conceptualizing process is going on all the time in our minds, enabling us to think in a distinctly human way. By understanding the conceptualizing process, you can more fully appreciate the integral relationship between language and thought, the way in which these two processes work as one to create meaning and understanding. In the same way that words are combined according to the rules of language to produce an infinite variety of linguistic expression, so concepts are related according to the patterns of thought to create the infinite dimensions of thinking.

Resources

1: Mind Map
2: Thinking Critically; Ninth Edition. John Chaffee.

Organization

Relating and Organization

By: Alex Stewart and Terry Stiner

Modern Organizational Theory vs. Improvisation “Organization theory deals with the formal structure, internal working, and external environment of complex human behavior within organizations. As a field spanning several disciplines, it prescribes how work and workers out to be organized and attempts to explain the actual consequences of organizational behavior (including individual behavior) on work done and on the organization itself.” It has been evolving for centuries on how should work be done in the public administration and how the organization should be. “Research findings have emerged about what motivates workers and how different incentives affect various tasks, employees, and situations; and the environments in which they operate.”

Even with all those research statistics and different modes of thought toward organization there are still situations in which the rational approach to public decisions does not help. For instance, what if the environment is instable and has no guidelines or precedents to follow? In the case of Israel, improvisation has changed the organization of public administrations, uprooted the conventional models for policymaking, and strayed off from the Weberian model of administration. This kind of improvisation is the product of “cultural and personal predilections and environmental circumstances,” The use of improvisation is dependent on the culture and the environment in which policy decisions are made. For example, the use of improvisation is found more so in Spanish managers. Why? “Spanish mangers express an explicit preference for spontaneous, improvised managerial style over the methodical and formal planning favored by their American, English, and Dutch counterparts.” Another proponent of improvisational technique is the Israelis. Improvisation is made inevitable in a situation where problems must be dealt with expediently and on the spur of the moment.

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.

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Relating and Organization

By Earl, Mindi & Sarah

Jhpirwpsio spigjpsjg sgfokj\[eojg]
[ojojfdopj 9\spg] [0ig][\]
[lgs\gopfdgj[fdjk;bfigpof[dpk[dgik[pfikgsfkgs]
One way to understand, and relate to organization, may be to understand the relationship between organization and chaos. At left are characters, numbers and letters familiar to us, but configured in such a way that no sense can be made of this text. Random, chaotic key strokes with no particular pattern; although there could be reason for this, such as a password, key code, or perhaps some other combination for access to somewhere. In some ways chaos can be organization, like a “metaphor, an implied comparison between basically dissimilar things made for the purpose of illuminating our understanding of the things being compared”. (Chaffee 289) This is a comparative-analogical organizational relationship

Now, if I arrange these letters-abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz-this is easily ciphered as the English alphabet. First, one learns the name of the letters of the alphabet, and the order from A-Z, then phonetic sound of each letter. Next, one learns to arrange these letters e.g. (or-ga-ni-za-tion) in order to create words, and understand there meaning in order communicate, and arrange thoughts and ideas through written words or spoken language. Finally, one is ready to write their Autobiography. This is an example of a Process-organizational relationship.

This is an example of how a chronological relationship might look. I have always wanted to write the story of my life, my own book, my autobiography. I guess I might start by giving my name then my early childhood, my school days, teen years, creativity, girlfriends, becoming a young adult, college, career, marriage-starting a family, raising a family, retirement, reflection-buying the Porsche…I have told my story from beginning to end- in chronological order.

Organization runs through every facet of our lives, from our biological beginnings, to our influence that we have on one another. This brings me to causal-organizational relationship. This has to do with cause and effect, and much to do with our experience of the latter and how we prepare and organize and conduct our selves on a daily. If I don’t brush my teeth and eat candy all the time, I will probably get cavity’s.

References

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th ed. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.

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Relating and Organizing: How it helps you think

By: Ryan Downing, Christie Barnett, and Brianna Boyd

Your ability to think critically gives you the skills to examine different possibilities in which you start thinking of the sense of the world so you can develop your understanding of what the world is really about. Once you start thinking and having a sense of what the world is, you start to discover and compose different patterns. What you are exploring is in fact the ways in which your experience relates to each other in different aspects. Your ideas, things, and events in the world could be related and organized in many ways. Individuals don’t have the same set of mind of certain things, they have different values or how to relate and or organize things in their world. An example would be say two people are given a box of legos with the same types in it and are told to make something with them. Both have the same possibilities but each person chooses to have different designs with the legos. The designs may show how each person reflects their ways of their needs, the way of thinking, and other preferences. When it comes down to it all they ways of relating and organizing reflect the basic thinking patterns that you depend upon continuously when you think, act, or use language. This is an essential part of your process of composing and making sense of the world around you.

There are many ways of thinking and how to process thought into relating and organizing into the world. One would be chronological and process patterns which take patterns of thinking and organizing events in the time of the occurrence and put into something like a log or diary, another type of time-ordered processes would be like process relationships. When you compare certain items to each other you’re doing a comparative relationship. An example would be like different pairs of jean brands, everywhere in life you have to organize your thought and relating it to the world around you, a lot of the time it is an instant reflex.

Like comparative relationships, analogical relationships are a different kind of comparing things in life. It does not focus on things in the same category. The goal is to clarify or illuminate a concept from one category by saying that it is the same as a concept from a very different category. Then there are the in-between lines of all these relationships, a simile and a metaphor. A Simile is an explicit comparison between basically dissimilar things made for the purpose of illuminating our understanding of the things being compared. A Metaphor is an implied comparison between basically dissimilar things made for the purpose of illuminating our understanding of the things being compared.

Through the experiences of understanding and organizing everything you see casual patterns of thinking as well. The casual relationships involve relating events in terms of the influence or effects they have on one another. An example would be if you punched yourself hard enough to where you could feel it you would be demonstrating a cause and effect relationship. Even though people tend to think of causes and effects in isolation, Such as the punching yourself and it hurting you, in reality causes and effects rarely appear by themselves. They generally appear in sections, or parts of more complex patterns. One is called casual chains; it is a situation in which one thing leads to another, which in turn causes a “chain” reaction to lead to another, and so on. Another is Contributory causes; the act becomes simultaneous to produce an effect. The last one is called Interactive Causes, this reveals that causes rarely operate in isolation but instead often influence other factors.

In order to think and make sense of anything in the world, like normal human beings, we must understand. We must take the information, organize it into relationship between what it means to us and the world around us, and how it effects us.

Sources:

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th ed. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.
"Relationship and Thought" Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 11 Feb 2009. 14 Feb 2009.

Moral Issues

Thinking Critically about Moral Issues

By: Alex Stewart and Terry Stiner

Capital Punishment Capital punishment is punishment by death for committing a crime. Since the early 1800’s, most executions have resulted from convictions for murder. The death penalty has also been imposed for other serious crimes such as armed robbery, kidnapping, rape and treason. People disagree about whether capital punishment is moral or is effective in discouraging crime. Questions that are most often argued when discussing capital punishment fall into three categories: Does capital punishment save money? Does capital punishment strike fear into offenders, saving innocent lives by deterring would-be killers? What does capital punishment mean to an innocent person wrongly accused? Capital punishment definitely does not save money. It actually cost more than any other penalty.

Dan Cutrer has used tow Texas counties to quote estimated costs of capital trials as compared to non-capital trials. These counties estimated the cost of a capital trial between $400,000 and $600,000. When the cost of a non-capital trial, which is around $75,000, is subtracted from the cost of the capital trail, the median of the two estimates is $425,000 to try each capital defendant. Assume that the juries will pass a death sentence in 80% of all capital trials, and the appeal courts will continue to over turn about 30% of all death sentences. This means that about 50% of all capital trials will result in an actual execution. The actual cost of each execution, counting only the initial trial costs, comes at $850,000. Therefore, capital punishment does cost more than any other penalty exacted by the criminal justice system. Even these estimates, which reflect only the cost of the original trials, and not appeals, death row housing, or execution cost, prove that capital punishment does not save money (Capital…).

The idea that capital punishment discourages or prevents criminals from committing crimes is based on a simple assumption that most people fear death. Therefore, the threat of capital punishment will influence criminals to refrain from committing crimes. Unfortunately, this assumption is incorrect. Starting with the simplest of statistics, if capital punishment reliably prevented murder, countries with capital punishment should generally have a lower murder rate then countries without. However, this does not occur (Capital…). The homicide rate in Canada has gradually been dropping since executions were stopped. This has also been seemed to be true in many other countries that have abandoned the death penalty (Robinson). As of in the United States, states that use the death penalty tend to have higher number of homicides than states that do not use it

Cited

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th ed. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009

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Thinking Critically about Moral Issues

By: Zach Hays, Griffin Campbell, Steff DeDroog

Moral and ethical questions are often the most difficult and challenging questions to answer. Moral questions are usually multi layered and require the answerer to invoke his own moral beliefs in coming up with an answer. Critical thinking becomes a crucial part of our thinking when it comes to moral issues. It allows us to reflect upon our own moral values, as well as allowing us to break down the question more deeply. Critical thinking also plays a role in helping us to develop enlightened values, use informed moral reasoning, and make ethical conclusions.

Morality and ethics are concerned with how the world ought to be and what courses of action people should take. This requires a kind of deep thinking that we can fully apply our critical-thinking ability to. Thinking critically about moral issues will not only help you deal with these issues, but also help you to refine and enrich your own moral values.

Your moral values are the qualities that you fundamentally believe in. You reflect these values in the way you act, as well as the way you see other people. Your values are reflected when you are determining whether a person is fundamentally “good” or “bad”. They are also reflected in our actions with the people around us.

Determining whether a person is a moral person is difficult because there are not many values that are universal. Although it is a touchy subject, religion is a value that is widely debated. The belief in God is a moral value that some people hold dear, while others easily dismiss. A moral person does not have to be someone sharing the exact same moral beliefs as you, but rather a person who carries multiple qualities that make him or her “good”. Qualities such as courage, compassion, and kindness are qualities that help to make a person moral.

A person’s moral compass can be black and white in some areas, and gray in others. It is important to use your critical thinking to examine your own moral compass and define which of these values are well-grounded and thought out, and which ones are ill defined and flimsy. It is these flimsy moral codes that should be examined by our critical thinking. With critical thinking we can examine why we hold these certain beliefs and why they are important to us. Because we constantly change as people, it is important to continually reflect upon our moral standpoints.

Where do we obtain these moral values? Parents, teachers, friends, religion, and authority figures all have a part in shaping our moral compass. Once again critical thinking can be used to examine whether these moral beliefs are your own, or the beliefs of your parents or friends. Certain moral questions, such as “Is abortion right?” lead to clashes of moral compasses. Your religion may tell you that abortion is one hundred percent wrong, while you may believe that in some instances it is right. It is in these situations that critical thinking should be used to get to the root of YOUR beliefs.

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th ed. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2007.

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Moral Compass

By Earl, Mindi & Sarah

The development of a-moral compass- begins in infancy, with the attachment that children develop with their caretakers. The bond between an infant and other caring adults creates a trusting relationship. Children want to please these adults and act in ways to gain that approval. The first few years of a child's life are extremely important in creating a relationship that builds the foundation for the development of a moral compass. These are the early stages of developing right from wrong, and the golden rule “do to others what you would like done to you”, from this stage begins our moral journey.

The standards, or values that one develops through out their life are mostly the result of there upbringing and determined by their choices. Pleasure, pain, loss, gain, they are all the same they are just happening, so says Baba Ram Dass. These opposites are two sides of the same coin. While one may not be the most pleasurable, and was probably a mistake to begin with. More than likely given the choices next time this will not be repeated. Thus, by making a wrong choice it can turn out to be what was needed in order to grow, and truly know the moral or right choice? Aristotle, a Greek philosopher said that “wisdom is the result of experience”, that one cannot know unless one has experienced for them self. Sometimes it takes many wrong choices to find out what the right choice is. Ethics and morals are concerned with the judgment of the goodness or badness of human actions and character.

What is a moral compass? A moral compass can be your conscience, your feelings about subjects like; abortion, euthanasia, the death penalty, manipulation of others, stealing or lying. Moral compass has to do with why you believe the way that you do, this at times involves decision making. Decisions can involve circumstances surrounding an event, such as a burning building. Imagine for a moment that you are witness to an apartment building that is on fire. People are escaping the burning building from the front entrance. Firemen are carrying people out of the building, and other people are escaping the blaze from the fire escape. Still, there are others inside the building trapped; you see some of them crying for help from the windows. Above flames are growing and the heat is intensifying. Given this situation you are helpless, and you know that the firemen are doing all that they can. That is there job. That is there moral obligation. You in this situation are a bystander; you might reason that there is nothing that you can do, that the fire is too big, but let’s add some heat and make this a more personal moral dilemma. Let’s add to the fire Mom and Dad, and your fiancé, now we got ourselves a fire!

What would you do now? Just stand there, maybe pray, gasp, or would you run into the flames risking your own life, is the fire to big now? Your moral compass would decide. It is much easier to say; “ya. I rocket up those burning stairs-hair on fire, clothes melting, lungs burning and grab mom and dad, and my future wife and save them all”. It is one thing to talk about moral compass and a far different thing to integrate morals into one’s own life. Moral Compass is practiced and integrated over time. It is easy to say I would never kill anyone it is against the Ten Commandments of the Bible that I live by. Maybe, then you are attacked do you give up and let your assailant kill you, does your body even let that happen. Our nervous systems and our endocrine systems are not as moral as our opinions. In some cases nothing not even a burning building can stop you. Is that “Moral Compass” or is that biology.

Wrestling with moral dilemmas, it is sometimes hard to see exactly how what is right from wrong. Murder is punishable by death in the U.S., yet killing the enemy is commendable with a Meddle of Honor. Is not killing, killing? Well it just depends, so it seems on prevailing ideologies. Killing is not punishable if that is your job,(say fighting Taliban soldiers), but that does not mean that it is not wrong. Many combat soldiers return to their homelands with emotional scars. Some soldiers do not. Some can step right over a homeless person sleeping on the sidewalk and not give it a second thought, and some other people can not. It just depends on an individual’s moral compass.

Arguments

Arguments

By: Zach Hays, Griffin Campbell, Steff DeDroog

An argument is defined as a form of thinking in which certain statements (reasons) are offered in support of another statement (a conclusion). Although arguing is a fundamental part of everyone’s day, understanding the basis of an argument and knowing how to construct them is an easy way to learn how to argue better. And who doesn’t want to learn how to argue more efficiently?

To construct an effective argument, you must evaluate the soundness of the argument that has already been constructed by the opposing party. First, you must see how true the supporting reasons are. Evaluate whether each reason makes sense, whether there is any evidence being provided, and whether or not each reason is based on a trusted source. Here, you are using your critical thinking to deconstruct the opposing argument.

You must also examine if the reasons support the conclusion. If the reasons do support the conclusion so that the conclusion follows from the reasons being offered, than the argument is valid. If the reasons do not support the conclusion than the argument is said to be invalid. One way to focus on validity is to use deductive reasoning. To do this simply assume that all the reasons in the argument are true and then try to determine how probable they make the conclusion.

When the argument includes both true reasons and a valid structure, the argument is considered sound. In an argument “truth” and “validity” are not the same concepts. An argument can have true reasons and an invalid structure and visa versa, and be unsound. The degree of soundness an argument has depends on how accurate our reasons turn out to be and how valid an argument’s structure is.

The deductive argument is most commonly associated with the study of logic. A deductive argument is an argument form in which one reasons from premises that are known or assumed to be true to a conclusion that follows necessarily from these premises. Put simply, if you accept the supporting reasons as true, than you must accept the conclusion as true as well. For example:

Premise: All major league baseball players use steroids.
Premise: David Eckstein is a major league baseball player.
Conclusion: Therefore, David Eckstein did steroids.

This deductive reasoning is known as the General Rule, or All A is B.

A second valid deductive form is called modus ponens, or affirming the antecedent, or If A then B. For example:

Premise: If I study for the exam, then I will do well.
Premise: I studied for the exam.
Conclusion: Therefore, I will do well on the exam.

As with other argument forms, the conclusion will be true if the reasons are true.

A third deductive form is called modus tollens, or denying the consequence. For example:

Premise: If Zach is a good friend, he will let me borrow Madden 09.
Premise: Zach refuses to let me borrow Madden.
Conclusion: Zach is not a good friend.

The fourth deductive form is known as a disjunctive syllogism. It is presented in the form, “Either A, or B. Not A. Therefore B.” For example:

Premise: Either my wallet is on my dresser, or I have lost it.
Premise: My wallet is not on my dresser.
Conclusion: Therefore, I must have lost my wallet.

All of these forms of argument are found in everyday conversations. They also appear in more formal levels of thinking such as in scientific inquiry, debates on social issues, and in academic disciplines. By understanding the makings of an argument and how they work, we can better our arguing skills.

References

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th ed. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2007.

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The Effect the Media has on the Publics Opinion

By Scott, Nic & Josh

The media can have a lot of effect on the public’s opinion towards how we look at the government. It can tell us certain things about the war in Iraq so we see what they want us to see. They are going to show us things they want us to see. For example, the government is not going to want us to here how America has done bad things in the Middle East. They are only going to tell us all the good things that are happening over there, so we keep a positive outlook on the war. People are always going to listen to what the media says, because that is our main source of information intake. We see what they want us to see. I think that the government has the right to control what the people see and how all of this affects their opinion; however I do not think it is right. People should be able to see all sides of and argument or point and should make their own decisions on what to think about that subject. I think that the government should affect the public’s opinion because the government wants their country to run smoothly, and in order for that to happen they must have people thinking the way they want to.

The media can affect the public’s opinion many different ways. Through what they watch on television, through what they hear on the radio, and through what they see on the internet. I know that the government can’t really control what is put up on the internet. The internet does however control what the public thinks about. However, people do control what is put of on the internet, but people control what they look at on the internet. In my eyes, television is the most influential way the media affects the public’s opinion. But this is all what you make of it. I am part of the public and I choose what to listen to. I am not going to watch things I don’t want to, and I am not going to listen to things I don’t want to listen to. I am going to create my own opinions on things and not let someone or something else affect that. That’s why I choose to watch sports and movies all day. If you don’t watch all that crap they are trying to feed you, then they won’t be telling you what to think about, and how to think. I can totally understand how the government would want for us to hear what they want us to hear in regards to the war in Iraq.

They don’t want us to hear about people dying and all those things they don’t want us to hear. All the want us to hear are all the good they are doing, and how they are accomplishing the things that they are supposed to. Everyone thinks differently is this world but everyone’s opinion can be affected in one way or another. I could not tell you any current events or anything to do with news. It is not something that is in my daily intake of media. I stick to NBA basketball games, NHL hockey games and College football games. I also enjoy watching movies and video games. News is something I never watch. I could not tell you the last time I watched a news program. It's just something that I do not enjoy at all. I have my own views on different subjects. Like war, abortion, slavery, and gas prices. But I do not need some to tell me what to think about those subjects. Ill make my own decisions on those subjects. I suggest that people listen to what the media says, but don’t let them make your decision for you. Make your own decisions on some of the worlds issues. In regards to the government. When making decisions on voting, people should listen to what all parties have to say and then make a decision who to vote for after you know a lot of facts from all of the parties involved.

The media can effect what people think in so many ways. Do not let them effect your decisions before you learn facts. Don’t just see one thing and then automatically agree with it, find out all the facts and then decide on what is right. Don’t believe something you don’t want to just because it’s the easy way out. Do your homework and decide what is right for you.

Constructing Arguments

Constructing Arguments

By:Brendan, Jocelyn, Kayla

“Constructing Arguments", what an interesting topic. When thinking of arguments, so much of the time it seems that they just happen or come about as a result of interacting or being in relationship with people. Who would know that arguments are actually constructed and that there is thought and logic in performing them? For example, let us imagine two people in the grocery store. The first, a woman in her forties with three children under the age of twelve with a cart full of food, beverages, and miscellaneous items is pushing full force ahead to get through the store with everyone intact. The second, a young man who has come to grab just three items for his wife, who is attempting to complete a meal for the evening. They both arrive at the check-out counter simultaneously, but the worn-out woman takes a step forward to begin unloading her cart. The young man looks at her in disbelief and comments, “I have just three items. May I go ahead of you?” The woman, in bewilderment, looks back and exclaims, “I have been in here for an hour and a half and I just want to get home. Everyone needs to wait their turn.” In essence, an argument is breaking out. Neither person, when they entered the grocery store, would have predicted it, but nonetheless, it is occurring. What then occurs when constructing an argument and seeing it played out, other than discomfort for all that surround the individuals engaged in the argument?

First of all, recognize that an argument is dialogue. It is a systematic exchange of ideas. Each individual has the opportunity to think critically, which causes them to develop their mind and to make sense of the world. When two or more people are having a discussion, what is taking place is the encouragement of mental activity, the stimulation of questions, putting issues into perspective, and determining reasons to support conclusions. (See Thinking Critically, Chapter 10) Although the example above is a minute issue, here we see that the woman presents her argument in response to the young man’s comment by giving her reasons to support her conclusion of why she pushed ahead to unload her grocery cart. It is common to think that an argument is defined as a fight, dispute, or quarrel. On the contrary, an argument consists of giving reasons to support your conclusion. It should not be automatically construed as something negative. Individuals may have differing opinions on matters, and to discuss them with reasons that support a conclusion can be a very positive thing. In marriage, for example, Matthew D. Turvey in his article “Fighting Fair” states “Rather than avoiding conflict in marriage, we must embrace healthy conflict as a way to enjoy and love our spouse.” Living in reality, that everything is not always going to be perfect, is really important. As a matter of fact, what creativity and diversity would there be if we were all the same or all thought the same way about all things?

Second, understand that reasoning consists of explaining, justifying, predicting, explaining, and persuading an individual regarding why we think the way that we do about a particular issue. An argument form entitled “deductive argument” is giving reasons based on what is known or the assumption that something is true which leads to a conclusion. Deductive arguments can be formulated in four different ways. They include the following: 1) Syllogisms—have two supporting premises 2) modus ponens—“affirming the antecedent” 3) modus tollens—“denying the consequence” 4) disjunctive syllogism—“presenting several alternatives” These argument forms are applicable in debates, social issues, scientific inquiry, and academic disciplines. (See Thinking Critically, Chapter 10)

In order to have effective discussion, it is important to listen carefully. Oftentimes in an argument, we are thinking of what we want to say next instead of truly listening to the other person. Listening is essential for us to understand the other’s points of view. Effective discussion also consists of having supportive views which include reasons and evidence. We also must respond to the points. Sometimes we want to change the subject or hit on a totally different point and it is important to address the points at issue. Further, we should ask and answer questions which elevate our understanding of the matter. As unbelievable as it may sound, arguments are not just about winning. Lastly, the discussion should be productive and to have a productive discussion, it should be organized. When individuals are arguing, it is easy to go around in circles. Stay focused on the matter so that the discussion can take place in an orderly fashion.

Arguments are not just about verbal communication. It is also significant to note that arguments should be able to be presented in written form. Skills for written arguments include clear and concise communication that is persuasive. Three steps to include in argumentative writing and which seek to define the issues are as follows: 1) Organize complex relationships 2) Select terms 3) Revise. Remember that “…language and thinking are partners….” (See Thinking Critically, Chapter 10)

References

Chaffe, John, Thinking Critically, Ninth Edition, 2009, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA.
Turvey, Matthew D., “Fighting Fair”

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Constructing Arguments

Sarah Schieck, Mindy Keith & Earl Brainard

Argument is defined as a form of thinking in which certain statements (reasons) are offered in support of another statement (a conclusion). Commonly arguments usually lead to a dispute or quarrel involving intense feelings between people. Usually arguments are not carefully reasoned or stated clearly because people get so angry.

There are two main ideas to an argument, reasons and conclusion. Reasons is a type of thinking you have been doing throughout your life. We are all trying to justify and predict things through the process of reasoning. Where as conclusion explains or predicts the basis of reasons that are offered. Our language provides guidance to identify reasons and conclusions.\par

Certain key words, known as cue words, signal that a reason is being offered in support of a conclusion or that a conclusion is being announced on the basis of certain reasons. For example; in the first place and in the second place, are part of reasoning. An example; it follows that, is part of the conclusion. Examples of reasoning are; since, for, in view of, first, second, because, as shown by, and as indicated by. Examples of conclusion; therefore, thus, hence, so, which shows that, implies that, points to , as a result, consequently, then, and it follows that. These are all called cue words.

In evaluating arguments, to contruct an effective argument, you must be skilled in evaluating the effectiveness, soundness, of arguments that have already been contructed. You must investigate two aspects of each argument independently to determine the soundness of the argument as a whole. How true are the reasons being offered to support the conclusion? To what extent do the reasons support the conclusion, or to what extent does the conclusion follow from the reasons offered. In evaluating arguments they ask do the reasons support the conclusion, there are valid and invalid arguments. Valid arguments are an argument in which the reasons support the conclusion so that the conclusion follows from the reasons offered. Invalid arguments are an argument in which the reasons do not support the conclusion so that the conclusion does not follow from the reasons offered.

There are two major types of argument forms they are deductive and inductive arguments. A deductive argument is an argument form in which one reasons from premises that are known or assumed to be true to a conclusion that follows necessarily from these premises. The deductive argument is the one that is commonly associated with the study of logic. There are four common rules with the deductive argument. The first one is application of a general rule and it is valid no matter what terms are included. The second one is modus ponens and it is affirming the antecedent. The third is modus tollens and it is denying the consequence. The fourth is disjunctive syllogism and it is presenting several alternatives.Inductive arguments rarely provide conclusions that are totally certain.

In constructing extended argument the purpose is mastering the forms of argument to become a sophisticated critical thinker who can present her or his ideas to others effectively. Learning to contruct is one of the most important writing skills that you need to develop. Learning to discuss ideas with others in an organized, productive fashion is crucial for thinking critically, it is equally important to be able to present your ideas in written form.

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Thinking Critically To Help Further Yourself in An Argument

By Scott, Nic & Josh

We’ve all been in an argument. Like two rams butting heads in the Rocky Mountains, we’ve butted heads with friends, family, loved ones and total strangers, neither person or parties wanting to lose. While many opt to raise their voice and/or use colorful and explosive hand gestures, it’s those who can put their thoughts together in an intelligent and precise manner that will win the argument, regardless of whatever it may be about.

The argument could stem from something as simple as whose turn it is to wash the dishes, to the broad and impossible to fully-explain, such as the validity of religion or reasons for the war in the Middle East. Regardless of the topic at hand, knowing how to put words together and how to get from step one, to step two and three without missing a detail is something critical thinking helps accomplish.

And it all stems from simply being able to connect the dots, in all things you see or hear. When a car commercial advertises that they’ll “take back your car should you come under financial stress”, realize that instead of the saints they claim to be, they’re merely saying what the IRS has done since it’s inception in the mid-1860’s(1) – if you can’t afford something, they’ll take it right back. There are moments of opportunity to seize these bits of information, process them, and wield them to further your argument and solidify your points.

And an argument is a two-way conversation; it’s a dynamic, ever-changing flow of information, giving both sides chances to pick and piece together bits of that information, and use them to their own advantage. Each person has a chance to think critically, and in the process, develop their mind and try to make sense of the topic at hand. This constant stream of new information, correction of old information, and the synching of old ideas with the facts of today is fodder for mental activity, the stimulation of the brain. The more we know, the more we want to know. And the more we want to know, the more we’ll discuss. And the more we discuss, the more we’ll argue trying to reach the right decision or the right idea.

Thinking critically won’t just help you win an argument. It’ll make you sound more charismatic – people will want to listen to you talk and make sense of things they might not have understood before. It’s why teachers (the good ones anyway) are excellent critical thinkers – they help the young and the stupid and the ignorant think for themselves, teach them how to listen rather than talk. When we argue, in the “heat of the moment,” we tend to think about what WE want to say next, rather than listen to what the other person wants us to hear. It may not be what we want to hear, it may be detrimental to our case and our side of the argument. But without hearing another person’s ideas and thoughts, their opinions and morals, we’re no better than when we started the argument, and just wasted what could have been a minute or two or ten of exercise for our brains, and turned it into an episode of Jerry Springer.

Shouting over someone and banging away at the same points over and over again does not stimulate mental growth and improve your communication skills. Listen, learn, pick apart what’s being said, and come back with new ideas, supported by what your adversary just brought up.

References
1 IRS Article

Reasoning

Reasoning Critically

By: Zach Hays, Griffin Campbell, Steff DeDroog

Reasoning is the type of thinking that uses to decide, explain, predict, and persuade. There are two types of reasoning, deductive reasoning, which is an argument form where one reasons from premises that are assumed to be true to a conclusion that follows from those premises, and inductive reasoning which is an argument form in which one reasons from premises assumed to be true to a conclusion that is supported by the premises but does not necessarily follow them. Basically, when you reason inductively your premises provide evidence that makes it probable, but not certain, that your conclusion is true.

Empirical generalization is one of three forms of inductive reasoning. Empirical generalization is defined as a form of inductive reasoning in which a general statement is made about an entire group based on observing some members of the group. This type of reasoning was most recently put on display during the presidential elections by the major news networks. During Election Day nearly every news show was predicting the results hours before the polls had even closed. The networks did this by examining a select group of people, known as a sample group, who they feel will adequately represent the group as a whole.

The three criteria for evaluating inductive arguments are: Is the sample known, is the sample sufficient, and is the sample representative. In order for a deductive argument to be persuasive the sample population must be explicitly known and identified. If your sample group is labeled generally and vague than your argument will not hold up. For a sample to be sufficient the size of the group must be large enough to give an accurate sense of the community as a whole. Generally, the larger the sample sizes the more reliable the conclusions will be. For a sample group to be representative of the community as a whole it must reflect the many different views of the community. To continue with the polling example, in order for the news stations polls to be representative the sample group must have an equal number of men and women, of Democrats and Republicans, of young and old, and so on. The better the group reflects the target population the more accurate the conclusion. When a sample is not representative of the target population it is termed bias.

Although generalization and interpretation are useful concepts they sometimes lead to fallacious ways of thinking such as hasty generalization, sweeping generalization, and false dilemma. A hasty generalization is one that is based on a very small sample size and usually leads to a false conclusion. A woman thinking all men are evil because one guy hurt her feelings is an example of hasty generalization.

While hasty generalization deals with mistakes made in the process of generalizing, sweeping generalization focuses in the process of interpreting. It is defined as a general conclusion reached that overlooks exceptions to the generalizations because of special features in the exceptions process. In layman terms, the conclusion drawn exceeds what the evidence shows.

A false dilemma, also known as the “either/or” fallacy, occurs when we are asked to choose between two extreme alternatives without being able to consider additional options. A simple example of a false dilemma is the statement “Live free or die.”

A second major type of reasoning is causal reasoning, in which an event or events is claimed to be the result of another event or events. Put simply, it focuses on the causes and effects of a given situation. The scientific method was based upon the assumption that the world is constructed in a web of causal relationships. The scientific method is a sequence of five steps that go as follows:

1. Identify an event or relationship between events to be investigated.
2. Gather information about the event.
3. Develop a hypothesis or theory to explain what is happening.
4. Test the hypothesis.
5. Evaluate the hypothesis.

There are several fallacies that come into play during causal reasoning. First is the questionable cause, which occurs when someone presents a causal relationship for which no real evidence exists. Superstitions such as “walking under a ladder will bring you bad luck,” fall under this category. The second fallacy is misidentification of the cause. This occurs when what you believe is the cause of the problem is actually not the cause at all. The third fallacy is known as post hoc ergo propter hoc, or “after it, therefore because of it.” The last cause is called the slippery slope. The slippery slope fallacy asserts that one undesirable action will lead to a worse action, and so on.

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th ed. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2007.

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Reasoning Critically - Inductive Reasoning

By:Brendan, Jocelyn, & Kayla

The basis of reasoning critically is “inductive reasoning.” “Inductive reasoning, or induction, is reasoning from a specific case or cases and deriving a general rule. It draws inferences from observations in order to make generalizations.” (See Changing Minds)

There is much to be careful of in the way of inductive reasoning. Fallacies, for example, are such things to be cautious about. Fallacies are defined as “[u]nsound arguments that are often persuasive and appearing to be logical because they usually appeal to our emotions and prejudices, and because they often support conclusions that we want to believe are accurate.” (See Thinking Critically, Chapter 11) One must consider many things to determine whether or not the reasoning is valid and accurate. There has to be evidence that the conclusion is true.

One of the important tools that both natural and social scientists use is empirical generalization which is a general statement about a group which is based only on a part of that particular group. An example which is noted from this source is the election. Based on a percentage of voters, a determination is made before all votes are in. Although not always accurate, this method can be a fairly predictable indicator of a conclusion. Those making these predictions choose from the target population (those affecting the result) a sample (percentage of target population) to represent the whole.

What must be considered to determine if the prediction will be justifiable is that the sample must be known, the sample must be sufficient, and the sample must be representative of the target population. For example, if a survey was done at Colby Community College to determine the number of students who access the fitness lab during the week, a sample of students would have to be determined, it would have to be a sufficient percentage of the total enrollment of students, and it would have to be a fair representation of students on the campus. It would not work to ask only half of the baseball team because that would not be a sufficient sample and it would not represent the majority of students on campus. Instead it would be more accurate to survey approximately 500 students, a percentage of each department and sport represented at Colby Community College. In contrast, if you are predicting whether or not a bag of potato chips is stale, you would only need to sample one chip in order to determine the freshness of the whole bag. So, in essence, it depends on what type of prediction you are making.

Other things to be aware of are hasty generalizations, sweeping generalization, and false dilemmas. Hasty generalizations are based on making a generalization from one incident. Sweeping generalizations are formed by a one-size-fits-all policy. As the source references, an example of this would be to say that vigorous exercise is beneficial for everyone including people who have recently had heart attacks, people currently out of shape, and pregnant women soon to deliver. Although vigorous exercise is beneficial, it is not beneficial for certain people at certain times. False dilemmas are extreme, indicating that there are only two answers and no additional options. Therefore, empirical generalizations are beneficial, but must be used accurately in order to make valid predictions.

Another important method to consider is causal reasoning. This reasoning indicates that an event causes another event. This is central to both natural and social sciences. Along with this, the scientific method is used by scientists to organize, discover, and accurately test conclusions. There are steps used to complete this process that include identifying, gathering, and developing. This concludes that reasoning requires definite action and diligent work on the part of scientists and all individuals involved in the process.

References
Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically, Ninth Edition, 2009, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA
“Inductive Reasoning”

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Causal Reasoning

By: George Aiken, Anthony Rohr, Demetria Stephens

Causal Reasoning is inductive as it relies on the principle of one event causing the effect of another, by a means not completely known. The Scientific Method follows this view to develop conclusions through a series of steps;
# Identify an event or relationship to be studied
# Gather information about that event
# Develop a hypothesis or theory to explain the event
# Test that hypothesis through experimentation
# Evaluate the hypothesis based on experimental results

Identifying and gathering information about an event can follow critical thinking methods outlined in earlier chapters. Creating a strong hypothesis requires an understanding of the phenomenon it intends to explain. Three elements of a strong hypothesis are:

Explanatory Power its ability to explain the event in question
Economy the simplicity of explanation, or the ability to get down to the basics of the issue without unnecessary steps
Predictive Power its ability to show future results from current possible actions.

To determine the legitimacy of a hypothesis, it is important to test it. An important factor of any scientific experiment is accuracy, which refers to the known amount of error in any measurement. This range of error shows the strength and areas of support experimental results give a hypothesis. A Controlled Experiment isolates a few specific aspects of complex interactions.

Different procedures are used to study different types of interactions

Cause to Effect
In this approach, experiments intend to discover the effects a known cause will created. A sample group is selected to closely resemble a target population too large to study in its entirety. The sample group is then split randomly and evenly into two parts which should closely resemble each other. One group is then exposed to a known cause, the other is kept from it, and the effects displayed by both are studied. The only difference in causes is assumed to be the known cause, so any difference in effects are attributed to the known cause. This type of experiment uses Intervention by the experimenter to produce results.

In some circumstances, however, the known causes are either beyond the experimenter's control, or involve actions the experimenter does not want to take. In these situations, Intervention is not possible, but a "Controlled Experiment" of the Cause to Effect model still is with a different setup. From a target population, an experimental group is chosen which is already exposed to a known cause of some effect. A control group is also chosen from the same population to closely resemble the experimental except for its exposure to the known cause. The effects of each are studied in the same way as in other controlled experiments.

Effect to Cause
For some hypotheses, only the effects of some suspected cause can be studied, the conditions for a new experiment are not replicable. In this case, an experiment follows an "Effect to Cause" approach. An experimental group is chosen based on previous exposure to a suspected cause of current known effects. A control group is chosen from the same population to closely match the experimental except for previous exposure. The same aspects of each group are measured as current effects. Any significant difference between groups may be attributed to previous known cause.

"Causal Reasoning" is a very powerful investigation technique and can be used in varying circumstances. It provides an ability for strong assumptions to be made without the need for absolute truth. While this does help an individual and a society to guide their motivations towards life and growth, it can also hurt when a path that was strongly invested in as pointing towards the truth is shown to be false.

Bibliography

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
2007.
"A Primer on Inference-The Scientific Method"

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The Critical Thinker's Guide to Reasoning

By: George Aiken, Anthony Rohr, Demetria Stephens

Where do you stand on certain topics? Do you have the confidence to present your points to others? This is only the beginning to the critical thinkers guide to reasoning. There are more important issues that have to be addressed to make it justified. It is not about choosing a side and simply stating it. It is being an effective reasoner.

To be an effective reasoned you must answer, for yourself, a series of questions;

1. What is my initial point of view?
2. How can I define my point of view more clearly?
3. What is the origin of my view?
4. What are my assumptions?
5. What are the reasons, evidence and arguments that support my point of view?
6. What are other points of view on this issue?
7. What is my conclusion, decision, solution, or prediction?
8. What are the consequences?

Your initial point of view may be the easiest task. The supporting cast that goes with your point of view is what can be a struggle. Defining your point and being able to use examples can help build your argument. It is useful to know how to break down general qualities into specific examples to build your argument into a strong case.

The history or origin of your point is important to review. There are so many questions such as: how did you get involved in this subject, have you always felt this way, and what caused you to have this certain opinion? Causal reasoning can be one tool that can help you answer these questions. Causal reasoning is one event causing the effect of another.

Being able to display your reasons with evidence and arguments is key. Using statistics, personal experience, and interviews from credible sources help support your opinion. With the better arguments and examples they will separate informed, and uninformed opinions. Informed opinions are brought up by actual information, or they are credible opinions.

In many arguments, only one side may be brought to your attention, or the other side of the argument wasn’t a part of your agenda to study. Identifying the reasons to the other side of the point will help you understand why you came to these conclusions. You're stepping in the shoes of someone else, “thinking empathically” to try and see it how they see.

Reaching a successful conclusion is the main goal when reasoning. The conclusion sums up all the points, arguments, and evidence given. It is like the closing points in a criminal trial. Where each side is presented and the prosecutor and defense lawyer each display their points once more to get their message across. Both sides are examined, then the jury makes their decision based on the informed opinions.

Consequences Something that logically or naturally follows from an action or condition. For every action taken you must think about the consequences that will ultimately follow. How will your view affect or influence someone else who has already made their choice, or is still deciding? Your views should be displayed with morality, knowing someone else will be looking at your viewpoints.

The thinkers guide to reasoning scheme can be used on any important issue that comes up. If used properly it gives you the ability to reason effectively, as well as other tools used in critical thinking to conduct debates, and controlled arguments.

Bibliography

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
2007.
Facione, Peter. (1996). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts. Millbrae, CA: The California Academic Press.

Living Creatively

Deciding on a Career

By: George Aiken, Anthony Rohr, Demetria Stephens

The “dream jobs” that you chose as a child may not interest as you as an adult.

You may enter college without a plan, or any sense of direction, but many professions look for a college degree, and it’s an important place to find where you might fit in a society.

The path that led you to college is subjective. You may have just graduated from high school. You could be a returning student. Perhaps you’re a new student, returning from the armed forces. At this point, you're on the same path as everyone else, to apply the “interests, abilities and values” you’ve garnered before the step into college. Yet, you may not be sure what profession to pursue. You may change your major several times, or perhaps you haven’t declared your major. To regard a change in your major or indecisiveness about your path as a sign of “instability and confusion” is a negative outlook. Viewing this confusing situation with a positive outlook: when you explore different majors, you may find details about a field of work that don’t agree with your character. By exploring yourself and seriously considering different professions, you're thinking more critically about the path that's right for you.

Consider your past:
Getting a degree may be “an intelligent beginning” because an education prepares you for a career and gives you a better standing in a job interview. Yet, the job markets in the world are changing. To remain flexible, you need to be a "life-long learner." By reflecting on your previous job choices, you can realize what you don’t want to do again, and where to go from there. You can readjust your path now by creating this “career portrait.” As well, listen to the experiences of your boss, co-workers, family and friends.

Thinking Errors in Career Decisions

If you take a job for the wrong reasons, you might be dissatisfied later. Question your reasoning for taking a job by considering the following:

- By clinging to familiar jobs, you could place limits on new opportunities.
- Too much focus on salary and job security can blur factors like job satisfaction or opportunities for advancement.
- Family or peers sometimes overpower your decision on a career choice.
- You may take a job by accident, or circumstance, and never reevaluate your opportunities.
- If you don’t analyze your skills and interests, you may not know what you’re capable of.
- “Dream jobs” may seem risky, and cause you to feel afraid to fail.
- A reluctance to leave an unsatisfactory job can stem from a fear of the risk and sacrifice in the interim.

Creating Your Dream Job

Your "interests, abilities and values" won’t attract a job to you. By understanding yourself, you should be able to relate what you know to a job where they can be applied.

You should keep your career choices realistic. Taking a job that pays well, but doesn’t relate to your interests is an approach that could be draining over a long period. If you’re passionate about your work, you may be motivated to accomplish more. It makes sense that those who use this approach often become more successful than those who enter a profession for financial gains, with little interest in the work itself.

Thinking about your career plans:

Write a specific description of the career(s) you think you might enjoy. Describe what experience(s) you’ve had surrounding the career(s) and the reasons why you think you’d enjoy it (them). Go on to write out the doubts, fears, and uncertainties you have concerning your choice(s). Imagine the problems you will have to solve and the challenges you will have to overcome in order to achieve your career goal.

How would you define success, and success in your dream job? If you let go of that definition of success, would your dream job be something completely different?

Finding the Right Match

The many, diverse, jobs available to you may be confusing.

You might find information about a profession at college, through a career resource center, or by visiting with people in those fields. They may have media available that describe various professions, or career counselors to set you on the right path. Work internships, summer jobs, and volunteer work are also possible opportunities for hands-on experience.

By exploring new areas, you may obtain new “interests, abilities and values." It’s important to continue to analyze your decisions, and keep track of the current job markets. Many opportunities may present themselves through networking. When you keep your options open and approach jobs with an analytical mind, you can adjust better to accidents and other unplanned changes, as well as new opportunities. By keeping in touch with different people, and finding new contacts, you may be introduced to a better job.

Bibliography

Chaffee, John. Thinking Critically. 9th Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
2007. 435.

"Career Planning Tips"

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Living a Life Philosophically

By: Jocelyn Benoit, Kayla Wilson, and Brendan Miller

There are three principles of life, Thinking Critically, Live Creatively, Choose freely. Thinking critically, by becoming a more powerful critical thinker you are gaining the abilities you need to achieve your goals, solve problems, and make intelligent decisions. To become a better critical thinker you need to explore situations from many different perspectives, and develop reasons to support your points of view. Living creatively, creativity is a powerful life force that can infuse your existence with meaning. A creative lens changes everything for the better, problems ten to become opportunities for growth, same routine day after day becomes challenges for inventive approaches, and relationships often become intriguing adventures. Choose freely, “to exercise genuine freedom you must have the insight to understand all of your options and the wisdom to make informed choices.” When you accept your freedom start working to guide your life in positive directions. You see things you had never seen before, see things in a positive way. More things in your life become positive ways. More things in your life become positive things you look forward to. Those three things when putting them all together makes a person who is intelligent, creative, and determined.

Deciding on a Career, as you are growing up many people ask you “What you want to be when you grow up?” As a kid its something fun to think about because you don’t really know anything about your future some kids may say I want to be a power ranger or a princess just things they see on t.v. and like they don’t really know that you mean for there future career. As you get older people start to put more thought into it. Because you realize what it takes to be what you want to be, for instance going to college, getting a degree. Some people go into college right after high school, or after raising a family people return to school or after serving in the armed forces. Some people go into school not having any idea what they are going to do and other people know exactly what they want to do and what they need to do to become that. Most college students will change there majors a lot of different times before they finally graduate with there major.

Creating Your Dream Job, it makes sense to use your imagination to think about the job you picture yourself most fitted for. A lot of people settle for a job that is less than they havge to become they don’t think they can do anything else. Doing this almost guarantees failure in a career quest. Another thing that sets a person up for career failure is choosing a job just because it pays well even if they have no interest in it what’s so ever. If you don’t enjoy the job you’re doing it won’t last long. The place to begin your career quest is in your dreams not your fears.

I have found a couple articles that deal with Critical Thinking. Vitamins: More May be too Many, Americans are taking supplements mostly vitamins thinking that they will make them healthier. Researchers sat that vitamins cannot correct a poor diet or prevent any disease, infact too many can actually increase the risk of disease.

The Trouble With Self- Esteem, people are trying to say that self esteem issues are reasons that people commit crimes like rap, abuse, prostitution, murder, and even terrorism. “In 1990 David Long published “The Anatomy of Terrorism,” were he found that hijackers and suicide bombers suffer from feelings of worthlessness.

Reference The New York Times.

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Critical Thinking to Further Yourself in The Work Force

By Scott, Nic, and Eddy

While critical thinking is mainly a personal-benefit practice, using and developing critical thinking skills can not only help acquire a desired job, but it can also provide you the opportunity to secure that job, and several promotions, for the long-term career. Every day we make decisions. In the workplace and in our private lives, we act on information, both the constant stream we get during the day on the fly, and that which we already know, to determine our actions. And in it’s wake, affect those around us. Should we revise a certain policy? Should we begin a formal approach to managing poor performance? Who should do what work? That’s where critical thinking in the work force starts to both earn you recognition by your superiors, and secure your spot with the company for a long tenure.

Those that subscribe to a "rationalist" approach to decision making (and who often teach others rational problem-solving methods), lead us to believe that the best decisions are those that are made by weighing the information — the pro's and con's, a staple of strong critical thinking. It all comes down to a simple formula: For each current problem or situation, there’s an alternative option, in a formal, systematic way. While this is sensible, people who have taken rational problem-solving seminars point out that it just isn't that simple, and have suggested the following:

* Many situations are so complicated that to consider all of the relevant factors results in "analysis paralysis".
* There are many, many unknowns, particularly the people’s side of problems that are often impossible to include those unknowns into one's problem- solving, rendering the process virtually useless. For example, if one is designing a computer chip, one can usually evaluate one design against another, on factors such as cost, efficiency, etc. What is problematic is whether one design or another will be more "attractive" to potential purchasers.
* The rational approach to problem-solving is stultifying, boring and time consuming. Life is largely unpredictable and somewhat uncontrollable, so attempting to predict and control everything logically simply is not realistic.
* These are valid objections. However, rational, systematic approaches to decision- making are useful tools, to be applied, within reason, to situations where they can be effective.
* So, is the choice between being overly committed to long, logical analysis, vs decision making based on intuition (those snap-decisions made on instinct and your gut-feeling), and emotions? Absolutely not. What we can do is to use a more flexible approach to decision-making that does not require a long, drawn out process, but incorporates critical thinking so that we are not overly swayed by non-rational ways of thinking.
* To understand critical thinking, one has to have some sense of how human beings process information. We are biologically set up to make sense out of information and experience by summarizing it, or more technically, to reduce the amount of detail through the use of concepts. For example, we can "decide" that an unknown animal is a cat using some very few bits of information. We wouldn’t need to count the whiskers on the animal. Simply knowing that an animal possesses whiskers helps us decide, regardless of number.
* The upside to this is that we can survive in a complex world, by virtue of our intelligence, rather than our physical ability. The downside is that our summarizing of information about problems may cause us to make the wrong decision, particularly when we act upon uncritically accepted assumptions or "experience summaries".

References
| Thought & Logic

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